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13 Dec 2019

Which is NOT TRUE about the AIDS epidemic? A. Most transmission worldwide is heterosexual and vertical , mother to baby b. We estimate that about 35 million people are currently infected worldwide c. The epidemic in Africa has been going on longer than the one in the US d. In some countries over 35% of childhood deaths are caused by AIDS

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Related questions

Read the following passage focusing your attention on the scientific procedures and scientific abilities illustrated in it. Think about what types of experiments (observation, testing or application) are described. Identify the hypothesis, predictions, outcomes of experiments and assumptions that appear in the passage. The standard explanation of how humans originally acquired AIDS is that HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) originally was transmitted to humans from monkeys or apes carrying SIV, simian immunodeficiency virus. How could the transmission have occurred? Several similar hypotheses involve an African hunter coming in contact with monkey blood. For example this could have occurred when a hunter butchering a monkey, got some of its blood in a cut, or when a human ate undercooked monkey meat, or when a monkey bit a human. Depending on one's assessment of the genetic diversity of HIV over time, this transmission might have occurred only a few decades ago or, alternatively, hundreds or thousands of years ago. If the latter is correct then AIDS could have been restricted to remote African villages until recent decades when trade and international travel led to the current pandemic. There are however other alternative explanations for the spread of AIDS. One of them is that AIDS arose from contaminated polio vaccines used in Africa from 1957-59. Why is this a plausible explanation? Polio vaccines are cultured on apes’ kidneys, so contamination of a batch of vaccine by an SIV is a possibility. There is a precedent: in the 1950s and early 1960s millions of doses of polio vaccine were contaminated by another simian virus, SV-40. The vaccine alleged to be the origin of AIDS was given to hundreds of thousands of people in central and west Africa from 1957-1959. These locations later had some of the world's highest levels of HIV infection. The timing is also right, since the earliest known cases of AIDS date from the 1960s; the earliest HIV-positive blood sample was collected in Kinshasa in 1959. At the time, there was no way of testing for the presence of SIVs, which were only discovered in the 1980s. Another factor adds plausibility to the theory: the vaccine was given to many infants less than a month old, in an extra high dose. Since the immune systems of infants are not fully developed, this is an excellent way to help a virus jump the species barrier. Some scientists argue that the above explanation is not necessarily correct but that it is worth taking seriously. There are a number of ways to test it. One is to analyze stocks of polio vaccine; if the explanation is correct, then it is probable that some of the vaccines will carry SIV. Another is to scrutinize records of early polio vaccination campaigns in Africa. If it is true that the immunodeficiency virus passed to humans by way of those vaccines, the areas where the campaigns took place would be the same as those where the initial sprouts of the disease occurred and where the larger number of cases occurred during the early stages of the pandemic. Another is to analyze blood samples in Africa from the 1950s and earlier (pre polio vaccination): if the immunodeficiency virus was transmitted via the polio vaccine, HIV should not be found. Adapted from “Political refutation of a scientific theory: the case of polio vaccines and the origin of AIDS”. Brian Martin, published in Health Care Analysis, Vol. 6, 1998, pp. 175-179. Now reread the passage and answer the following questions.

5. For each experiment, write an outcome that would disprove the hypothesis of AIDS passing from monkeys to humans through polio vaccines.

6. What outcomes of the experiments would fail to disprove the hypothesis of AIDS passing from monkeys to humans through polio vaccines?explain.

7.What outcomes would prove the hypothesis? Hint: This is not the same as question 6. Think about what would you need to do to 100% prove a hypothesis.

8. For what reasons do scientists need to conduct testing experiments?

Provides substantial and thoughtful response, reflection – in-depth and detailed for the following post. Please don't copy past from the web

Tetanus; infamously known as lockjaw. This disease is found worldwide. Non-communicable diseases that will literally make your muscles tighten. Tetanus is not your typical disease. It is not spread person to person but through scraps, cuts, or any open wounds that break the skin. The incubation period for the disease is anywhere from 3-21 days depending on the wound and how contaminated the object was. The bacterium enters through these wounds and attacks the body affecting mostly the muscles. Most cases occur in people who are not vaccinated or do not maintain their boosters. Boosters are needed every ten years to prevent the disease. Although we cannot prevent injuries that cause the body harm we can prevent the disease from affecting our bodies through vaccination administration.

Tetanus cannot be tested but is diagnosed by physical examination conducted by a licensed physician. The diagnosis is based off physical examination and the reports from the patients about the symptoms they are experiencing. Some of those symptoms include; seizures, body aches, muscle spasms, jaw cramping, difficulty swallowing, headaches, fever, sweating, changes in blood pressure, and changes in their heart rate. Other complications can develop depending on a person's individual health and health history.

The best way to prevent Tetanus is by preventing it with the Tetanus vaccination and the boosters that are needed every ten years. This vaccination could be administered by a number of ways. There are four different types of combinations that include the Tetanus vaccination; Diphtherias & Tetanus (DT), Diphtherias, Tetanus, & Pertussis (DTaP), Tetanus & Diphtherias (Td), and Tetanus, Diphtherias, & Pertussis (Tdap).Tetanus is administered at six weeks old, ten weeks old, and fourteen weeks old. Boosters are given three different times during childhood to keep the children up to date on vaccinations that prevent the disease. People affected by Tetanus are not immune to getting Tetanus again like some other known diseases.

According to the CDC (Center for Disease Control) in their article about Tetanus they reported that Tetanus cases have been on the decline by more than 95% because of the increase in vaccinations being distributed worldwide. The CDC also reported that deaths in the United States are on the decline and have declined more than 99%. According to WHO (World Health Organization) in 2016 there are only 13, 502 reported cases globally. They also reported that 86% of the world is covered by the Tetanus vaccination. According to the World Health Organization there are currently 8 countries in the world that have 50% of their population affected by Tetanus. The other 50% are reported to have received their Tetanus vaccination. Majority of those countries are found in the middle of Africa. There are currently 27 countries in the world that 50-79% of their population who have received their vaccinations. There are also 130 countries that have over 90% of their population who have been vaccinated.

Tetanus is a vaccine preventable disease in which everyone can be affected by. Vaccinations are currently a controversial topic everywhere. Vaccinations play an important role in helping prevent disease like Tetanus.

References:

1. About Tetanus. (article). Retrieved September 1, 2017 from https://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/index.html

2. Tetanus. (article). Retrieved August 30, 2017 from www.who.int/immunization/diseases/tetanus/en/

Case Study

Skolnikland is in Eastern Africa, with a population of 30 million people. The country has a plains region, a hill region, and a region with high mountains. It has a number of ecosystems. The plains are dry for much of the year, there is some rainforest, and the rest of the country includes both hills and mountains. There are two seasons of heavy rainfall.

The citizens come from several ethnic groups that tend to live in their own regions and speak different languages. The ethnic groups largely follow one of three different religions. The large cities are mixed ethnically. One ethnic group is economically and socially very dominant. The people from this group live in the capital and most of the large cities. The national language is the language of this dominant ethnic group.

According to World Bank criteria, Skolnikland is among the poorest countries in the world. The economy has been growing at about 4% per year on average over the last decade, but the economy had very slow economic growth in the decades prior to that. The richest 10% of the population controls 80% of the national income.

About 80% of the people live in rural areas and 20% in urban areas. The number of people living in urban areas has been growing recently at an increasing pace. Most people earn their livelihood in agriculture but there is an increasing garment manufacturing industry in the two largest cities. There are also a number of mining industries. In addition, other export industries are beginning to grow, mostly focused on the export of commodities to China.

The total fertility rate is about 4.5 but it has been declining slowly over the last two decades, from over 6. There is an almost equal number of men and women in the population. Infant mortality is about 90 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality is about 500 per 100,000 live births. Thirty-five percent of the children are underweight for age.

The adult literacy rate is about 40%. The educational enrollment rate, especially for girls at the primary and secondary levels, has been growing slowly, but steadily. Most recently, this rate has been growing at an increasing pace and about 75% of the girls now attend school regularly, although many of them are of very low quality.

Only about 50% of citizens have access to safe water. Only about 30% have access to sanitary disposal of human waste.

HIV prevalence is 7% of the adult population. The number of new HIV cases annually has begun to plateau. About half of the people eligible for treatment for HIV are on treatment. Malaria is rampant in the plains.

Investments in the road system have been growing at a solid pace in the last decade and the use of private automobiles has begun recently to increase more rapidly.

Skolnikland has a pluralistic health system that is made up of public and private institutions, publicly financed providers, licensed private providers, unlicensed medical practitioners, and traditional healers. There is no health insurance, except for some free services for the poor in the few publicly financed hospitals, which the better off people do not attend. The health system is not very effective or efficient and is generally of low quality. The HIV, TB, and malaria programs are not effective or efficient and they are just beginning to adopt paradigms for services that follow global best practices.

QUESTION 26

What is a DALY?

Refer Case Study from question 1 to answer this question.

A. An indicator that compares the burden of deaths across the population of different countries.

B. A composite health gap indicator that measures the amount of health and disability-free life that is lost because of disease, injury, and premature death.

C. A WHO indicator used to summarize the expected number of years to be lived in good health.

QUESTION 27

What is an example of a conditional cash transfer that you can use to improve child health?

Refer Case Study from question 1 to answer this question.

A. Provide tax breaks to families with children.

B. Give money to mothers whose children received a full course of vaccination.

C. Pay higher fees to vaccination programs with better outcomes.

QUESTION 28

What usually takes place during the demographic transition?

Refer Case Study from question 1 to answer this question.

A. Fertility falls before mortality falls

B. Mortality falls and then fertility falls

C. Mortality and fertility fall at the same time

QUESTION 29

Which force is likely to have the greatest direct impact on epidemiological change in the medium and long terms on today's middle-income countries?

Refer Case Study from question 1 to answer this question.

A. Population growth

B. Population aging

C. Urbanization

QUESTION 30

Which is the most accurate statement about the distribution of age at death in Niger (a very low income country) and Norway (a very high income country) today?

Refer Case Study from question 1 to answer this question.

A. About 5% of the deaths in Niger are among those under 15, while the overwhelming majority of deaths in Norway are among those over 65.

B. About 30% of the deaths in Niger are among those under 15, while the overwhelming majority of deaths in Norway are among those over 65.

C. The overwhelming majority of deaths in both countries occur among people aged 65 and over.

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