Question

1. Invertebrates colonized terrestrial environments independently of vertebrates. However, they faced similar challenges adapting to land. A) Describe three (3) main challenges animals had to face when colonizing land. B) Vertebrates had some key traits derived during their existence in water, which later proved beneficial for colonizing land. Explain how vertebral column, jaws, lungs, and lobed fins paved the way for vertebrates to move from water into land.

C) List 4 different reproductive strategies found in animal species (e.g. parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism, external fertilization, internal fertilization, viviparity, etc). D) For each strategy, describe at least one advantage and one disadvantage.