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Why do infants & children receive vaccinations in a certainorder during certain periods as they grow up? Keep in mind the typeof vaccination, the risk associated with each vaccination, &the risk associated with NOT being vaccinated.

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Trinidad Tremblay
Trinidad TremblayLv2
28 Sep 2019

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Provides substantial and thoughtful response, reflection – in-depth and detailed for the following post. Please don't copy past from the web

Tetanus; infamously known as lockjaw. This disease is found worldwide. Non-communicable diseases that will literally make your muscles tighten. Tetanus is not your typical disease. It is not spread person to person but through scraps, cuts, or any open wounds that break the skin. The incubation period for the disease is anywhere from 3-21 days depending on the wound and how contaminated the object was. The bacterium enters through these wounds and attacks the body affecting mostly the muscles. Most cases occur in people who are not vaccinated or do not maintain their boosters. Boosters are needed every ten years to prevent the disease. Although we cannot prevent injuries that cause the body harm we can prevent the disease from affecting our bodies through vaccination administration.

Tetanus cannot be tested but is diagnosed by physical examination conducted by a licensed physician. The diagnosis is based off physical examination and the reports from the patients about the symptoms they are experiencing. Some of those symptoms include; seizures, body aches, muscle spasms, jaw cramping, difficulty swallowing, headaches, fever, sweating, changes in blood pressure, and changes in their heart rate. Other complications can develop depending on a person's individual health and health history.

The best way to prevent Tetanus is by preventing it with the Tetanus vaccination and the boosters that are needed every ten years. This vaccination could be administered by a number of ways. There are four different types of combinations that include the Tetanus vaccination; Diphtherias & Tetanus (DT), Diphtherias, Tetanus, & Pertussis (DTaP), Tetanus & Diphtherias (Td), and Tetanus, Diphtherias, & Pertussis (Tdap).Tetanus is administered at six weeks old, ten weeks old, and fourteen weeks old. Boosters are given three different times during childhood to keep the children up to date on vaccinations that prevent the disease. People affected by Tetanus are not immune to getting Tetanus again like some other known diseases.

According to the CDC (Center for Disease Control) in their article about Tetanus they reported that Tetanus cases have been on the decline by more than 95% because of the increase in vaccinations being distributed worldwide. The CDC also reported that deaths in the United States are on the decline and have declined more than 99%. According to WHO (World Health Organization) in 2016 there are only 13, 502 reported cases globally. They also reported that 86% of the world is covered by the Tetanus vaccination. According to the World Health Organization there are currently 8 countries in the world that have 50% of their population affected by Tetanus. The other 50% are reported to have received their Tetanus vaccination. Majority of those countries are found in the middle of Africa. There are currently 27 countries in the world that 50-79% of their population who have received their vaccinations. There are also 130 countries that have over 90% of their population who have been vaccinated.

Tetanus is a vaccine preventable disease in which everyone can be affected by. Vaccinations are currently a controversial topic everywhere. Vaccinations play an important role in helping prevent disease like Tetanus.

References:

1. About Tetanus. (article). Retrieved September 1, 2017 from https://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/about/index.html

2. Tetanus. (article). Retrieved August 30, 2017 from www.who.int/immunization/diseases/tetanus/en/

The Scientific Method

For any controlled scientific study, a scientist starts with an observation, does some research to develop a hypothesis, and then designs an experiment that compares some baseline group with a test group. Data are then collected to confirm or refute the hypothesis.

As you review the following study, consider whether the researchers correctly followed the scientific method.

In the late 1990s, gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, along with a research team, set out to determine if bowel disease caused by vaccines led to autism.

He compiled a group of 12 children who had loss of acquired skills, developmental delays in language, diarrhea, and abdominal pain-essentially, those with both bowel disease and autism. He questioned each parent about the behavior and personality of the child before the child was vaccinated with the Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine. He then ran tests on the children to determine the health of the gastrointestinal tract, brain, and nervous system.

His reported data (tabulated below) included that children experienced either gastrointestinal or autism-like symptoms, sometimes within a short period after being vaccinated. From these data, the researchers concluded that there was no link between autism and the MMR vaccine. Wakefield though, contradicted this conclusion and stated that the vaccine caused changes in the gastrointestinal tract of the children, which then led to autism (Wakefield, et al., 1998). Currently, he still contends that the MMR vaccine contributes to autism (Ziv, 2015).

Many researchers tried to duplicate this study and could not replicate Wakefield's results. In fact, they found no link between the vaccines, bowel disease, and autism. In the United Kingdom, the MMR vaccine was not introduced until 1988. If Wakefield's conclusions were correct, one would then expect a jump in autism cases after 1988, but this was not observed, even when hundreds of children were studied (Taylor et al., 1999). In these additional studies, children who had not been vaccinated were included as a control group, and no difference in the rates of autism was observed.

In 2011, Brian Deer reviewed Wakefield's study and all available records from the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom for these 12 children. He found that at most, two children showed symptoms days after vaccinations. At least five children showed developmental delays before being vaccinated. Six out of the 12 children may have had autism symptoms. None of the 12 children tested had all three-regressive autism, colitis, and symptoms days after vaccination.

Symptom

Wakefield

Wakefield NHS Records
(Deer)

Symptoms days after vaccination

8

2?

Non-specific colitis

12

3

Regressive autism

9

6?

Intestinal/autism/symptoms after vaccine

12

0

(Wakefield, et al., 1998; Deer, 2011)

Wakefield's statements led to a worldwide panic about the safety of vaccines, but after Deer's report, Wakefield's study was retracted and his medical license was revoked for falsifying data. Click on the following links to review materials to enhance your knowledge of the scientific method and to support your analysis of Wakefield's experiment:

Steps of the Scientific Method: A simplified explanation of how the scientific method works, the steps taken to investigate phenomenon with diagrams

Do Vaccines Cause Autism?: A review of research demonstrating that vaccines and their components are not the cause of autism

Fifteen years after a vaccine scare, a measles epidemic: An analysis of vaccination trends and an increase in measles cases seen the UK

Answer the following 4 questions:

What was wrong with Wakefield's study? Discuss at least 1 variable or approach that should have been controlled or assessed.

Consider the source of some of his data (parental memory, for example), the small sample size, and whether he considered other variables (genetics, diet, and so on) that could have resulted in symptoms in these children.

Discuss the importance of a control group when using the scientific method.

Did Wakefield deserve to be barred from medical practice?

What were the consequences of his inflated conclusions?

Part II. Enzymes and Digestion

A.) You should have been surprised to read that salivary amylase survives the stomach to enter the small intestine with much of its enzyme activity intact. A) Why were you surprised, i.e., what is the expected fate of proteins in the stomach? B) Try to come up with some general possible explanations as to why salivary amylase doesn’t suffer the usual fate of proteins in the stomach.

i)

ii)

B) Pancreatic amylase is absent in all newborn infants. Activity is present at only very low levels during the first 6 months of life, and doesn’t begin to reach normal levels until about 9 months of age, yet most infants seem to do just fine without it. Suggest reasons why this is so (include a consideration of the components of the usual diet of newborns).

C) Although the disease is quite rare, malabsorption of dietary starch occurs in individuals with a genetic deficiency in pancreatic a-amylase activity. Although early infancy (until about 9 months of age) is generally unremarkable in these patients, they soon have serious medical problems. What do you think some of the symptoms and/or problems might be? Why?

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