BIOL 1117 Study Guide - Final Guide: Chemical Polarity, Intermolecular Force, Ionic Bonding

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indigozebra465

13 Dec 2016

School

Northeastern University

Department

Biology

Course

BIOL 1117

Professor

Christopher Richardson

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Class 2

Hierarchy of Complexity

Organisms composed of organ systems

Organ systems composed of organs

Organs composed off tissues

Tissues composed of cells

Cells composed of organelles

Organelles composed of molecules

Molecules composed of atoms

- Organism = a single complete individual, capable of response to stimuli,

reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis

- Organ system = human body made of 11 organ systems

- Organ = structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to

perform function, has recognizable structural boundaries

- Tissue = a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of

an organ and performs specific function

- Cells = the smallest unit of an organism that carry out all the basic functions

of life

- Organelles = microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual

functions

- Molecules = make up organelles and other cellular components

- Macromolecules – proteins, carbs, DNA/RNA, fats/lipids

- Atoms = the smallest particles with unique chemical identities

Reductionism = theory of complex system such as the human body can be

understood by studying its simpler component

Holism = emergent properties of the whole organism that cannot be predicted

from the properties of the separate parts

- Animals are more than the sum of their parts

Anatomical variation

- No two humans exactly alike

- 70% common structure

- 30% variant structure

- variable number of organs or structures

Class 3

The Chemistry of Life

- Element = simplest form of matter to have unique

chemical properties

- Atomic number = of an element: number of protons in

nucleus

▪ 24 elements have biological role

▪ 6 elements = 98.5% body mass

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▪ oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus

▪ another 6 elements = 0.8% body mass

▪ sulfur, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iron

▪ 12 trace elements – found in small amounts, copper, zinc

minerals = inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants

- of all 24 elements, all minerals except oxygen and carbon

- contribute to body structure, enable enzyme function

electrolytes = (mineral salts) needed for nerve and muscle function

Atomic Structure

Nucleus = center of atom

Protons = single positive charge, mass = 1 amu

Neutrons = no charge, mass = 1 amu

Atomic mass = approx. equal to its total number of protons and neutrons

Electrons = single negative charge, low mass, in concentric clouds around

nucleus

- determine chemical properties

valence electrons = electrons in outermost shell

1. shell closest to nucleus contains max 2, then 8, then 18

2. determine chemical bonding properties

3. atoms tend to bond with atoms to fill outer shell and be stable

isotopes = varieties of an element that differ in the number of neutrons and -

atomic mass – are chemically similar

atomic weight = accounts for the fact that an element is a mixture of isotopes

ex. Carbon has atomic weight of 12.011 because carbon 13

and carbon 14 exist but carbon 12 most common

radioisotopes = unstable isotopes that breakdown to more stable isotope

by releasing radiation

chemical bonds = forces that hold atoms together or attract one molecule to

another

ionic bonds = attraction of cation to an

anion

- relatively weak in solution,

dissociate easily

- most reactive in solution

- form crystals not molecules

covalent bonds = formed by sharing

two electrons

- intramolecular bonds

single = sharing single pair of electrons

nonpolar covalent bond = shared

electrons spend approx. equal time each

around nucleus

polar covalent bond = unequal sharing

around nucleus due to electronegative

difference

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hydrogen bonds = weak interaction between slightly positive hydrogen and

and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen

- strongest intermolecular bond

- weak bond compared to covalent

bond, H strongest intermolecular

- water molecules weakly attracted by

h-bonds

- important to add stability to DNA

and proteins

van der Waals forces = weak, brief attractions

between neutral atoms

intermolecular

- two large surfaces or molecules meet, the attraction between

large number of atoms can create a very strong attraction –

many small weak attractions add up to stronger total attraction

- important in protein folding, protein binding with hormones,

association of lipid molecules with each other

Class 4

The Chemistry of Life: Water and Mixtures

Mixtures = substances are physically blended, but not chemically bonded – can

be undone

- Water is 50-75% body weight

- Waters polarity creates properties that account for its ability to support life

Solvency = ability to dissolve other chemicals

Hydrophobic = substances that dissolve in water – polar, loves water

Hydrophilic = substances that dont dissolve – nonpolar, hates water

All metabolic reactions occur because solvency

Water as a solvent – form hydration spheres

- The energetically most stable

arrangement is the formation of

hydration spheres

- Ionic bonds broken by system,

using energy released from

formation of spheres

- Non-soluble salts stay as precipitate because not enough

energy released by hydration spheres to break very stable

iconic bonds

Cohesion = tendency of molecules of same substance to stick to each other

Adhesion = tendency of one substance to stick to another

- `body forming lubricating film

- Creates surface tension

Chemical reactivity = ability to participate in chemical reactions

- water ionizes into H+ and OH-

- water ionizes other chemicals

- hydrolysis – splitting a water molecule as breaking up macromolecules

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Document Summary

Organism = a single complete individual, capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis. Organ system = human body made of 11 organ systems. Organ = structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to perform function, has recognizable structural boundaries. Tissue = a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of an organ and performs specific function. Cells = the smallest unit of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life. Organelles = microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions. Molecules = make up organelles and other cellular components. Atoms = the smallest particles with unique chemical identities. Reductionism = theory of complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler component. Holism = (cid:1684)emergent properties(cid:1685) of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of the separate parts.

Related Questions

It's a quiz for my life science class.

QUESTION 1

Organisms that have descended from the same initial group and have the ability to interbreed belong to the same

	A.	species.
	B.	family.
	C.	class.
	D.	genus.
	E.	order.

5 points

QUESTION 2

The simplest entity that exhibits all of the properties of life is called a(n)

	A.	molecule.
	B.	cell.
	C.	organism.
	D.	tissue.

5 points

QUESTION 3

In populations, adaptation usually arises through

	A.	responsiveness.
	B.	heredity.
	C.	metabolism.
	D.	natural selection.
	E.	development.

5 points

QUESTION 4

Scientists have found that ancient fossils

	A.	are less similar to present-day organisms than more recent fossils.
	B.	are just as similar to present-day organisms as more recent fossils.
	C.	are more similar to present-day organisms than more recent fossils.
	D.	are very similar to present-day organisms.
	E.	bear no resemblance to present-day organisms.

5 points

QUESTION 5

What is the term that describes the study of the relationship between living things and components of their environment?

	A.	herpetology
	B.	analogy
	C.	zoology
	D.	ecology
	E.	ichnology

5 points

QUESTION 6

Characteristics usually associated with life include all of the following except:

	A.	motility.
	B.	a high degree of organization.
	C.	lack of change from generation to generation.
	D.	reproduction.
	E.	responsiveness to stimuli.

5 points

QUESTION 7

The scientific name for the black-footed ferret is Mustela nigripes. The name Mustela indicates the _____________________ to which the organisms belongs.

	A.	phylum
	B.	class
	C.	family
	D.	species
	E.	genus

5 points

QUESTION 8

Which of the following is considered to be the most basic living unit?

	A.	organ system
	B.	molecule
	C.	organelle
	D.	cell
	E.	tissue

5 points

QUESTION 9

Which of the following concepts best describes the wide variety of dog species we observe, ranging from the domesticated golden retriever or the basset hound, to the wild dogs of Africa, to foxes?

	A.	preadaptation
	B.	special creation
	C.	inheritance of acquired characteristics.
	D.	taxonomy
	E.	evolution

5 points

QUESTION 10

If an ecologist is studying the cycling of carbon through a particular environment (which involes the movement of carbon through living things as well as through rock, air, and water), the scientist is studying at what level of ecology?

	A.	organismal
	B.	community
	C.	ecosystem
	D.	population
	E.	biosphere

5 points

QUESTION 11

Which list is organized from smallest to largest level of organization of life?

	A.	organisms, organ systems, organs, tissues, cells, organelles
	B.	organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms
	C.	organelles, tissues, cells, organ systems, organs, organisms
	D.	tissues, cells, organelles, organs, organ systems, organisms
	E.	cells, tissues, organ systems, organelles, organs, organisms

5 points

QUESTION 12

When examining the hierarchy of life, which of the following terms is most inclusive?

	A.	biosphere
	B.	population
	C.	species
	D.	ecosystem

5 points

QUESTION 13

The units of inheritance are

	A.	evolutions.
	B.	heredities.
	C.	genes
	D.	twins.
	E.	metabolic activities.

5 points

QUESTION 14

Organisms that undergo asexual reproduction

	A.	require another organism to reproduce.
	B.	are usually very complex.
	C.	produce offspring that are different from each other.
	D.	do not require energy to reproduce.
	E.	produce offspring that are identical to each other and to the parent.

5 points

QUESTION 15

All the living organisms in a particular area at a particular time make up a

	A.	biosphere.
	B.	community.
	C.	biosystem.
	D.	population.
	E.	ecosystem.

5 points

QUESTION 16

The first step in the scientific method is to

	A.	identify a problem.
	B.	predict the results of an experiment.
	C.	propose a solution.
	D.	draw a conclusion.
	E.	perform an experiment.

5 points

QUESTION 17

Young multicelled organisms usually start out small, then grow in size, and increase in complexity. This process is called:

	A.	heredity.
	B.	metabolism.
	C.	development.
	D.	evolution.
	E.	heredity.

5 points

QUESTION 18

To maintain order within their cells and organs, all living things must

	A.	carry on metabolism.
	B.	reproduce.
	C.	constantly change.
	D.	be able to move.
	E.	extract energy from sunlight.

5 points

QUESTION 19

Which of the following includes Highest levels of hierarchy?

	A.	family
	B.	phylum
	C.	domain
	D.	kingdom
	E.	order

5 points

QUESTION 20

Fungi are classified into which domain?

	A.	Archaea
	B.	Eukarya
	C.	Bacteria
	D.	Fungi

erinhare264

________30. If you are investigating the inner structure of a new cell and see that it has a significantly larger amount of RER than other cells. You would conclude the cell does a great deal of____?
A. ATP synthesis

B. protein synthesis
C. DNA synthesis
D. active transport
E. polysaccharide hydrolysis

________31. If a cell comes in contact with a toxic substance such as H2O2, it could survive as long as it has a ___ to digest it.
A. DNA
B. peroxisome

C. mitochondria
D. phospholipids
E. intermediate filaments

________32. Some cells have structures to help them withstand osmotic pressure. For example,
A. Plant cells due to their walls
B. Animal cells due to the sodium/potassium pumps

C. Bacterial cell due to their swimming

D. Viruses due to their protein coats

________33. Evolution occurs only as a cell ____.

A. They undergo mitosis
B. Change in their gene pool
C. They move from one habitat to another

D. They begin to eat different foods

________34. Ribosomes are produced in the

A. nucleoli.
B. chromatin.
C. nuclear envelopes.

D. Golgi complex. E. cisternae.

________35. Algae are often green, but there are red and brown species also. What accounts for this difference in color?
A. The chlorophyll of chloroplasts
B. The pigments in other plastids

C. The presence of a mitochondria
D. The accumulation of cellular wastes

________36. The chloroplast and other like prokaryotes have which of the following that helps with photosynthesis?
A. They live in water based environments
B. They have chloroplasts in their cytoplasm

C. Change color in the dark vs. the sun
D. They have photoreceptor proteins in their membranes or mesosomes.

________37. Located in the membrane, we see a set of proteins called receptors that only connect with or bind to specific substances. This is called __.
A. ligand specificity.
B. hormone selectivity.

C. cell tonicity.
D. water saturation. E. signal resolution.

________38. Of the following statements, we could say that ___ is false.
A. All organisms are composed of cells and cell products.
B. An organism's structure and all of its functions are due to the activities of cells.
C. The cellular organelles are the simplest structural and functional unit of life.
D. Cells come from preexisting cells.
E. Cells are made from nonliving components including the nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm.

________39. If it is really true that our cells are the smallest anatomical unit that meets all of the properties of life, then which of the following could imply otherwise?
A. vacuoles
B. centrioles

C. Golgi apparatus
D. mitochondria
E. endoplasmic reticulum

________40. Oxygen is an absolute need for animal and plant cells alike due to the ___.

A. RER
B. Mitochondria
C. Lysosomes

D. DNA

________41. In a plasma membrane, we expect to see the carb/protein structures to extend into the ___, but the secondary messengers to move within the __.
A. extracellular fluid; cytosol
B. cytosol; extracellular fluid

C. intracellular fluid; cytosol

D. cytosol; intracellular fluid

E. extracellular fluid; plasma

________42. Bacteria are found in all of the following habitats:

A. Caves
B. Oceans
C. Animals

D. Everywhere on Earth

________43. Two solutions are separated by a selectively permeable membrane. Solution A has a higher concentration of an impermeable solute compared to solution B. Which of the following do you expect would happen?
A. solute will move from solution A to solution B

B. solute will move from solution B to solution A

C. water will more from solution A to solution B

D. water will move from solution B to solution A E. no movement of solute or water will occur

________44. In the kidney, we notice that almost all of the cells involved in the production of urine have high concentrations of the Na+/K+ pump. Which typically works to push Na+ ___ its concentration gradient by using ___.
A. up; active transport

B. up; facilitated transport
C. up; cotransport
D. down; active transport
E. down; facilitated transport

________45. In the charts of a patient recently admitted to the hospital noted that he was taking a medication called lithium and high doses of calcium supplements. Given this, we would expect the patientâs liver to have a higher than normal amount of __ to purify out the lithium and calcium.

A. lysosomes.
B. centrosomes.
C. mitochondria.
D. peroxisomes.
E. rough endoplasmic reticulum.

________46. We have long observed that our neural cells in the brain cannot replicate or replace themselves due to the lack of ____.
A. produce ATP.
B. divide.

C. produce enzymes.
D. secrete material across their plasma membrane E. conduct electrical signals.

________47. An organismâs structure and function is ultimately due to the structure and function of itâs __.
A. Organs
B. Tissues

C. Cells

D. Nuclei

__________ are fairly small organelles that provide a safe place within the cell to carry out certain biochemical reactions that generate harmful, highly reactive oxygen species. These chemicals are both generated and broken down in the same location.

Lysosomes

Endosomes

Peroxisomes

Nucleosomes

Biologists cannot possibly study all living species. Instead, they try to understand cell behavior by studying a select subset of them. Which of the following characteristics are useful in an organism chosen for use as a model in laboratory studies?

rapid rate of reproduction

all of the above

ability to grow under controlled conditions

amenability to genetic manipulation

By definition, prokaryotic cells do not possess __________.

ribosomes.

a nucleus.

membrane bilayers.

replication machinery.

Cell biologists employ targeted fluorescent dyes or modified fluorescent proteins in both standard fluorescence microscopy and confocal microscopy to observe specific details in the cell. Even though fluorescence permits better visualization, the resolving power is essentially the same as that of a standard light microscope because the resolving power of a microscope is limited by the __________ of light.

intensity

absorption

wavelength

filtering

Choose the phrase that best completes this sentence: Microtubules ____________ and are required to pull duplicated chromosomes to opposite poles of dividing cells.

generate contractile forces

can rapidly reorganize

are found in especially large numbers in muscle cells

are intermediate in thickness

Despite the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, prokaryotes have proteins that are distantly related to eukaryotic actin filaments and microtubules. What is likely to be the most ancient function of the cytoskeleton?

cell division

cell motility

vesicle transport

membrane support

DNA and RNA are different types of nucleic acid polymer. Which of the following is true of DNA but not true of RNA?

It contains thymine.

It has 5'-to-3' directionality.

It is single-stranded.

It contains uracil.

Double covalent bonds are both shorter and stronger than single covalent bonds, but they also limit the geometry of the molecule because they ____________________.

prevent additional bonds from being formed with the bonded atoms.

limit the rotation of the bonded atoms.

create a new arrangement of electron shells.

change the reactivity of the bonded atoms.

Drosophila melanogaster is a/an __________. This type of animal is the most abundant of all animal species, making it an appropriate choice as an experimental model.

mammal

amphibian

bird

insect

10.

If the isotope 32S has 16 protons and 16 neutrons, how many protons, neutrons, and electrons will the isotope 35S have, respectively?

16, 19, 17

16, 19, 15

16, 19, 16

16, 20, 15

11.

Living systems are incredibly diverse in size, shape, environment, and behavior. It is estimated that there are between 10 million and 100 million different species. Despite this wide variety of organisms, it remains difficult to define what it means to say something is alive. Which of the following can be described as the smallest living unit?

cell

organelle

protein

DNA

12.

Macromolecules in the cell can often interact transiently as a result of noncovalent interactions. These weak interactions also produce stable, highly specific interactions between molecules. Which of the factors below is the most significant in determining whether the interaction will be transient or stable?

the concentration of each molecule

the size of each molecule

surface complementarity between molecules

the rate of synthesis

13.

Many of the mechanisms that cells use for maintenance and reproduction were first studied at the molecular level in bacteria. Which bacterial species had a central role in advancing the field of molecular biology?

E. coli

S. pombe

C. elegans

D. melanogaster

14.

Many types of cells have stores of lipids in their cytoplasm, usually seen as fat droplets. What is the lipid most commonly found in these droplets?

cholesterol

isoprene

triacylglycerol

palmitic acid

15.

Mitochondria contain their own genome, are able to duplicate, and actually divide on a different time line from the rest of the cell. Nevertheless, mitochondria cannot function for long when isolated from the cell because they are __________________.

anaerobes.

viruses.

parasites.

endosymbionts.

16.

Mitochondria perform cellular respiration, a process that uses oxygen, generates carbon dioxide, and produces chemical energy for the cell. Which answer below indicates a correct pairing of material âburnedâ and the form of energy produced during cellular respiration?

17.

Polar covalent bonds are formed when the electrons in the bond are not shared equally between the two nuclei. Which one of these molecules contains polar bonds?

BIOL 1117 Study Guide - Final Guide: Chemical Polarity, Intermolecular Force, Ionic Bonding

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