EDUC 422 Study Guide - Final Guide: Graphic Organizer, Natural-Language Processing, Learned Helplessness
4 Jun 2018
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PHASES&OF&READING:!1.Ehri’s!(2005)!phase/interventions-!pre-alphabetic!(pretends!to!read!books!by!telling!a!story!as!she!turns!the!pages!and!looks!at!the!pictures;!reads!the!word!
“spokes”!on!a!bike!store!sign!as!“bikes”;!reads!MacDonald’s!logo,!a!stop!sign,!Starbucks!logo;!knows!a!few!letter!names,!“J”!for!John,!“M”!for!MacDonalds)!:alphabetic!knowledge!is!not!
used!to!learn!words,!limited!knowledge!of!letters,!do!not!understand!that!letters!make!particular!sounds,!read!words!from!memory!and!context-logos,!no!decoding!ability-pretend!read-
intervention:!acquire!letter!knowledge!and!phonemic!awareness-give!opportunities!to!write!and!associate!letter!to!sound!(letter!recognition),!segmentation!and!blending!exercises-
partial&alphabetic:!(reads!the!word!“spokes”!on!a!bike!store!signs!as!“scooters”;!reads!the!word!“best”!as!“bet”!or!“beast”;!writes!the!word!“big”!as!“dig”;!reads!the!word!“saw”!as!“was”;!
;!reads!the!word!“poke”!as!“pok”,!“tune”!as!“tun”;!reads!the!word!“pat”!as!“pit”,!“sit”!as!“sat”&!reads!the!word!“burn”!as!“barn”;!reads!the!word!“firm”!as!“farm”)!remember!how!to!read!
words!by!sight,!use!guessing!strategies,!weak!at!reading!and!decoding!words!by!analogy-limited!working!knowledge!of!the!alphabetic!system,!process!partial!letter-sound!relations!(first/!
last!letters),!no!strong!left-right!orientation-intervention:!practice!automatic!reading!direction,!explicit!instruction!in!letter-sound!correspondences,!direct!attention!to!all!sounds,!!teach!
mnemonic!for!distinguishing!the!similar!letter!shapes,!teach!similarly!spelled!words!in!separate!sets!to!avoid!confusion,!expand!their!working!knowledge!of!grapheme-!phoneme!relations!
full&alphabetic&(reads!the!word!“best”!letter!by!letter!by!sounding!out!each!letter!individually!b-e-s-t,!reading!of!words!is!generally!accurate,!but!is!slow!and!laboured):!possess!working!
knowledge!of!the!major!grapheme-!phoneme!correspondences,!phonetic!awareness!to!decode!unfamiliar!words!(slow!initially),!growth!in!sight!vocabulary,!read!unfamiliar!words!by!
analogy!to!familiar!words!they!know!by!sight-!intervention:!continuous!reading!practice!allows!students!to!become!familiar!with!frequent!sounds!and!associations!to!become!rapidly!
executed!and!automatic,!teach!onset!and!rimes-consolidated&alphabetic!(reads!all!words!fluently,!when!asked!questions!about!the!text,!responds!with!“I!don’t!know”;!reads!affixes!and!
prefixes!on!root!words!(jumped,!jumps,!jumping);!reads!the!words!“time”,!“lane”,!“prank”!easily;!uses!an!analogy!strategy!to!read!unfamiliar!word!“blight”!(knows!the!word!“right”),!
reads!the!word!“yacht”!with!ease):!learning!chunks!of!letters!that!recur!in!different!words,!hierarchical!decoding—!influence!on!phonemes!in!one!part!of!the!word!onto!other!parts!(ex.!
ending!-e),!attention!to!spelling!patterns-!intervention:!segmenting!spelling!patterns!into!syllables!and!pronouncing!them!can!be!done!to!decode!unfamiliar!words!and!analyze!the!
spellings!of!lengthy!words-!automatic&alphabetic!fluency!is!enough!that!the!student!can!focus!on!comprehension!of!the!text,!read!effortlessly,!strategies!for!word!attack,!focus!on!text!
meaning)-intervention:!practice,!challenge!with!books!slightly!above!reading!level,!comprehension&&TERMS:&Pseudowords!(191)!phonology:!association!of!sounds!with!letters!(the!
understanding!of!grapheme-phoneme!conversion!rules!and!the!exceptions!to!these!rules)!(189)!-!phonological!awareness(169)-orthography:!understanding!of!the!writing!conventions!of!
the!language!in!question!and!knowledge!of!the!correct!and!incorrect!spelling!of!words!(190)!-!orthographic!awareness:!awareness!of!the!structure!of!the!words!in!a!language!(p.!206)!–!
morphology/morphological!awareness(p.!190)-!syntax:!understanding!the!basic!grammatical!structure!of!the!language!in!question!(e.g.!word!order)!–semantics:!encoding!the!meaning!of!
a!word!(190)!-!working!memory(p.!189)!-!language!comprehension:!understanding!the!meaning!of!text-!rapid!automated!reading;!rapid!automated!naming(169)!lexical!access(190)!
grapheme-phoneme!conversion!rules:!association!of!sounds!with!letters,!this!skill!is!the!basis!of!decoding!print!(p.189-193)-!word!identification/recognition:!ability!to!read!isolated!words!
-!highly!correlated!with!text!comprehension!fundamental!to!reading!comprehension!-!problems!at!the!word!level!interfere!with!the!reading!of!connected!text!(Siegel!&!Mazabel,!2013,!p.!
186-187)-!reading!comprehension:!ability!to!read!text,!process!it,!and!understand!its!meaning!-!ultimate!goal!of!reading-text!reading!fluency!-!ability!of!readers!to!read!the!words!in!text!
effortlessly!and!efficiently!(automaticity)!–decoding:!identifying!the!sounds!of!individual!letters,!holding!them!in!mind!and!blending!them!into!pronunciations!that!are!recognized!as!real!
words!(Ehri!&!McCormick,1998,!p.!137)!-analogy!reading!strategy:!recognizing!how!the!spelling!of!an!unfamiliar!word!is!similar!to!a!word!already!known!-!readers!access!the!known!word!
in!memory!and!then!adjust!the!pronunciation!to!accommodate!the!new!word!(e.g.!student!reads!“bright”!because!they!know!the!word!“right”)!(Ehri!&!McCormick,1998,!p.!137)-!sight!
word!reading!strategy:!recognizing!and!reading!a!word!because!it!is!a!part!of!their!sight!knowledge!(memorized)!(Ehri!&!McCormick,1998,!p.!137)!-hierarchical!decoding:!understanding!
about!the!influence!of!graphemes!occurring!in!one!part!of!the!word!on!the!sounds!of!graphemes!in!other!parts!of!the!word!(e.g.!fine!vs.!fin,!wage!vs.!wag,!latter!vs.!later)!(Ehri!&!
McCormick,!1998,!p.!155).READING&DISABILITIES-1.How!is!dyslexia!described!-!what!is!the!relationship!between!"dyslexia"!&!"reading!disability"?!-!Dyslexia!seen!as!an!“illness”/medical!
condition,!but!it!is!an!education!problem!–!term!dyslexia!and!RD!are!actually!synonymous!-!but!avoidance!of!the!term!dyslexia!b/c!of!fear!and!disdain!(p.187).!2.!Why!do!children!with!RD!
have!difficulty!reading!pseudowords?!Pseudowords!require!phonological!processing!–difficulty!they!are!experiencing!is!decoding!skills!in!grapheme-phoneme!conversion!rules!–!often!rely!
on!visual!cues!so!don’t!recognize!pseudowords!(p.!192).&3.!What!is!a!dual-route!theory!of!dyslexia?!!Which!route!would!reading!the!following!words!assess:!mip,!sen,!jax,!yacht,!caught,!
right?!2!possible!routes!are!involved!in!gaining!access!to!meaning!of!print!-!direct!lexical!access:!visually!reading!a!word!(no!phonological!processing)!-!phonological!route:!involves!
grapheme-phoneme!conversion!rules!(p.!190)!-!first!set!of!words!would!be!through!the!phonological!route!to!sound!out!the!grapheme-phoneme!words!and!the!second!would!rely!on!
lexical!route.4.!Describe!1!measure!to!assess!a!child's!phonological!processing!of!speech!&!word!reading?!child!who!is!learning!to!read!must!map!oral!language!onto!written!language!by!
decomposing!the!word!into!phonemes!and!associating!each!letter!(or!combination!of!letters)!with!these!phonemes!(basically,!being!able!to!decode!grapheme-phoneme!conversion!rules)!
(e.g.!pseudowords!-!can!assess!who!is!familiar!with!phoneme-grapheme!conversion!rules)!(p.190).5.!Phonological!awareness,!syntactical!awareness!&!working!memory!-!how!do!these!
processes!influence!reading?!How!are!they!compromised!in!LDs?!Phonology:!in!order!to!read,!child!must!be!able!to!map!oral!language!onto!written!language,!but!phonological!processing!
is!fundamental!problem!of!children!with!RD!(p.!190)!-!syntax:!understanding!the!grammatical!structure!of!a!language,!but!those!with!LD!have!trouble!on!tasks!measuring!this!(oral!cloze!
task,!sentence!correction!task,!ITPA!grammatical!closure!subtest)!(p.!200)!–!WM!-!ability!to!retain!information!in!short!term!memory!while!processing!incoming!information,!but!those!
with!LD!have!difficulty!remember!what!has!just!been!read!(p.!201).6.Why!are!vowel!sounds!so!difficult!for!children!to!read?!More!complex!and!irregular!pronunciations!–!grapheme-
phoneme!correspondences!are!unpredictable!-!misreading!of!vowels!common!-!pronunciation!can!change!depending!on!the!context!(e.g.!e!at!the!end!of!words!that!make!the!vowel!long)!
–!some!poor!readers!with!sound!of!a!silent!e!–!incorrect!lengthening!or!shortening!of!vowel!–!sometimes!substitution!for!a!totally!different!vowel!(lake!for!like)!(p.196-197).7.!What!is!the!
role!of!morphological!awareness!in!reading!development?!What!is!the!relationship!between!morphological!awareness!and!reading!disabilities?!Sensitivity!to!morphemes!in!words!–!in!
reading,!morphological!awareness!aids!decoding,!spelling,!and!meaning!construction!(p.190)!–!understanding!roots!and!suffixes!of!words!(e.g.!printer!vs.!printing)!–plays!a!unique!role!in!
different!reading!tasks!(e.g.!reading!words/comprehension)!–!in!RD!-!poor!morphological!awareness!skills,!lower!scores!for!sensitiveness!to!derivational!morphology;!compensate!by!using!
a!morphological!(meaning-related)!strategy!to!decode!words!(p.!206)8.!How!does!orthographic!awareness!influence!reading!for!students!with!and!without!reading!disabilities?!Awareness!
of!the!structure!of!words!in!a!language!–!understanding!the!writing!conventions!of!the!language!&!correct!and!incorrect!spelling!of!words!–!with!RD!–!good!visual!memory!skills!–!pay!
attention!to!the!visual!aspects!of!a!word!(rather!than!phonological)!–!so!orthographic!processing!is!not!as!impaired!in!those!with!RD!–!make!use!of!an!orthographic!code!in!memory!-!but!
not!effective!b/c!they!are!paying!attention!to!the!visual!aspects!instead!of!using!phonological!skills!can!disrupt!normal!reading!and!cause!errors!–!therefore,!the!visual!access!route!is!
intact!in!those!with!RD!but!phonological!route!is!impaired!(p.!206-208).CHAPTER&18:&1.!Describe!two!reasons!why!intervention!research!to!support!students!with!reading!disabilities!is!
difficult!to!conduct.!Intervention!literature!on!RD!has!been!characterized!by!serious!measurement!and!methodological!problems!–!limited!recognition!on!the!fact!that!outcome!is!a!
multidimensional!and!multivariate!construct,!and!measurement!is!complex!–!extremely!difficult!to!measure!reading!comprehension!skills!adequately!in!a!child!with!word!identification!
problems!and!to!evaluate!whether!word!identification!gains!have!resulted!in!text!reading,!fluency!and!comprehension!-!efficacy!of!intervention!requires!assessment!with!respect!to!
transfer,!generalization,!and!maintenance!of!its!effects!–!questions!remain!regarding!their!reliable!and!valid!measurements–!failure!to!address!multidimensional!outcomes!and!reliance!
on!one!or!two!measures!of!achievement!as!primary!outcome!of!interest!explains!why!some!programs!have!yielded!modest!or!negative!findings!(p.!330) 2.!Describe!and!use!an!example!to!
illustrate!what!is!meant!by!transfer,!generalization!and!maintenance!of!effects!for!a!classroom-based!reading!intervention!intended!to!increase!word!identification!Example:!word!
identification!intervention!=!Compare-contrast!strategy!(word!identification!by!analogy,!p.!340)!Transfer:!learning!of!this!skill!influences!learning!(of!a!similar,!but!not!the!same!skill)!in!a!
new!situation!(I!googled!transfer!of!learning!and!think!this!might!work,!but!I’m!not!sure)-!(Can!use!comparisons!in!paragraphs!to!understand!meaning?!Not!too!sure)!Generalization:!
skill/effect!can!be!used!in!other!settings!(Student!learned!compare-contrast!strategy!in!English!class,!uses!it!in!socials!class!and!at!home!when!faced!with!less!familiar!words)!-!
Maintenance!of!effects:!skill/effect!is!still!appropriately!used!at!a!later!time(6!months!later,!the!student!can!still!use!this!strategy);!Transfer!of!an!intervention!means!it!has!to!be!
applicable!in!other!classroom!settings.!This!also!means!it!can!be!generalized!in!different!contexts!and!not!just!the!one!that!is!being!studied!in;!Maintenance!of!effects!would!mean!to!get!
the!same!(or!similar)!results!when!you!are!implementing!the!intervention!in!other!settings;!“Interventions!yield!larger!effects!on!researcher-developed!than!on!standardized!measures”!
this!does!not!show!transfer!3.To!assess!the!effectiveness!of!an!intervention,!one!must!consider!the!transfer,!generalization!and!maintenance!of!effects.!!Describe!and!use!an!example!to!
illustrate!what!is!meant!by!transfer,!generalization!and!maintenance!of!effects!for!a!classroom-based!reading!intervention!intended!to!increase!text!reading!fluency.!Example:!text!reading!
fluency!intervention!=!signaling!devices!(learn!about!them)!(p.!346)-!Transfer:!use!signaling!devices!to!learn!about!making!predictions!-!Generalization:!understand!the!signaling!devices!in!
a!narrative!book!and!in!a!science!text!book!-!Maintenance!of!effects:!can!use!signaling!devices!later!4.To!assess!the!effectiveness!of!an!intervention,!one!must!consider!the!transfer,!
generalization!and!maintenance!of!effects.!!Describe!and!use!an!example!to!illustrate!what!is!meant!by!transfer,!generalization!and!maintenance!of!effects!for!a!classroom-based!reading!
intervention!intended!to!increase!reading!comprehension.!Example:!comprehension!intervention!=!summarizing!-!Transfer:!use!summarizing!to!paraphrase!what!a!paragraph!said!-!
Generalization:!summarize!paragraphs!in!science!class!-!Maintenance!of!effects:!can!still!summarize!when!tested!later!5.!Three!possible!origins!of!decreases!in!phonological!awareness!
are:!underspecified!phonological!representations,!too!many!allophonic!or!acoustic!details!and!inadequate!access!to!phonological!representation.!Describe!how!a!student!with!dyslexia!
may!process!the!word!“tomato”!if!the!origin!of!the!student's!difficulties!with!phonological!awareness!is:.&underspecified!(degraded)!phonological!representations:!phonological!rep!of!
word!is!not!clear;!says!spaghetti!as!/sketi/,!phonemes!/p/,!/a/,!/g/!are!fuzzier;!larger!grain!size!=!process!at!larger!size!than!phoneme:!/spa//get//ti/!(syllable!level),!need!to!process!at!
phoneme!level!/s//p//a//…,too!many!allophonic!or!acoustic!details,!or!allophonic!variants:!process!as!/spagedi/,!/t/!confused!with!/d/;!variants!occur!regionally!(ie.!in!Toronto,!say!it!as!
Toron/d/o),!inadequate!access!to!phonological!representations:!good!phon!reps!in!memory,!yet!retrieval!of!them!is!difficult;!cant!segment!the!sounds!in!the!spoken!word!“spaghetti”!
since!phonemes!are!heard!quickly!together;!ask!for!it!to!be!spoken!more!slowly!6.!Describe!how!the!findings!of!Foorman!(1998)!provide!important!evidence!that!explicit!classroom!
instruction!in!letter–sound!correspondences!can!prevent!reading!underachievement!in!children!at!risk!for!reading!failure!–!children!from!the!direct!instruction!condition!demonstrated!
better!word!identification!skills!and!steeper!learning!curves!in!word!recognition,!versus!those!in!implicit!instruction!-!direct!instruction!in!letter-sound!correspondences!and!practice!with!
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Document Summary
Phases of reading: 1. ehri"s (2005) phase/interventions- pre-alphabetic (pretends to read books by telling a story as she turns the pages and looks at the pictures; reads the word. Highly correlated with text comprehension fundamental to reading comprehension - problems at the word level interfere with the reading of connected text (siegel & mazabel, 2013, p. Dyslexia seen as an illness /medical condition, but it is an education problem term dyslexia and rd are actually synonymous - but avoidance of the term dyslexia b/c of fear and disdain (p. 187). Pseudowords require phonological processing difficulty they are experiencing is decoding skills in grapheme-phoneme conversion rules often rely on visual cues so don"t recognize pseudowords (p. 192). More complex and irregular pronunciations grapheme- phoneme correspondences are unpredictable - misreading of vowels common - pronunciation can change depending on the context (e. g. e at the end of words that make the vowel long)
