COGS101 Study Guide - Final Guide: Monothematic Delusion, Anterograde Amnesia, Dsm-5
2 Jun 2018
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DYSLEXIA
• Acquired dyslexia → a reading impairment in someone who learned to read normally
but then lost that ability after brain damage
• Developmental dyslexia → a reading impairment in someone (often a child) who never
learned to read normally in the first place
o No child will learn to read without instruction/appropriate conditions – a child
needs to be TAUGHT, that is how you learn
o But some children fail despite;
▪ No obvious neurological/sensory impairment
▪ Supportive environment
• Bell curve distribution → how do we detect this?
o The children who are falling at the end of the distribution (at the bottom of the
hill) – these children are suffering
o Instructional casualties = the children who have not had opportunities to read
(children who are ill, teaching standards were not met at certain schools etc.)
• Response to intervention for diagnosis
o We identify the ‘instructional casualties’ through a Response to Intervention
model:
▪ Do they respond to intensive intervention? Or are they still here?
o Child with dyslexia can be identified if the child still has the opportunity to
learn, yet suffers and lays at the bottom of the bell curve distribution
How does reading work?
• What are the cognitive processes that are impaired in dyslexia?
o There needs to be a cognitive model of the reading process
• Stages of reading development
o Children go through different broad phases of reading acquisition as they learn
different skills
o Logographic phase (4-5 years)
▪ Small sight vocabulary of known words ‘MacDonalds’
▪ Often identified by salient graphic features ‘yellow’ has two tall sticks
▪ Cannot attempt unfamiliar words
▪ As number of words increases, problems occur ‘follow’ and ‘yellow’
o Alphabetic phase (5-7 years)
▪ Acquire ‘phonic’ knowledge – sound out
▪ Children learn relationships between sounds and letters
▪ Attempt to pronounce words not seen before;
• Though not necessarily correctly
• E.g. yachted for yacht
▪ Reading may feed back to spoken vocab e.g. ‘I’m throughly enjoying
myself’
o Orthographic phase (7-8years+)
▪ Read words as whole units without sounding out
▪ Not visual or cue based like logographic phase
▪ Rapid recognition of familiar letter strings
• Two key processes
o 1. Sounding out of ‘non-lexical’ skills
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▪ Reads new words and nonsense words e.g. gop
▪ Mistakes with irregular words e.g. yacht
o 2. Whole word or ‘lexical’ skills
▪ Reads all familiar words including irregular
▪ Can’t read new words or nonsense words
o Basis of dual route model of skilled reading
▪ Top of the model → a printed word presented (the letters will be
recognized)
• Then leads to the process of letter-sound rules (non-lexical
route)
• Letter recognition also leads to written word store, word
meaning store, spoken word (pronunciation) store (lexical route)
▪ Both these lead to speech sounds = speech
Different Kinds of Dyslexia
• Surface Dyslexia
o Nature of problem → poor whole word or lexical reading i.e. small sight
vocabulary
o Key symptoms → inaccurate reading aloud of irregular words e.g. hose, yacht
o Error Types → MI reads words ‘as they sound’, uses rules to read aloud rather
than whole word recognition = these errors are called ‘regularisation errors’
e.g. shoe is seen as show
▪ The problems are just not reading out loud – it is the trouble of the
meaning of words as well
• Phonological Dyslexia
o Nature of problem → poor knowledge of letter-sound rules, poor non-lexical
reading
o Identification in assessment → inaccurate reading aloud of nonsense words
such as ib, slint or stendle
o Error types → reads non-words at most similar looking word e.g. mirk seen as
milk, gret seen as great = these errors are known as lexicalization errors
• Hyperlexia
o Nature of problem → accuracy in reading aloud of single words and non-words
normal for age, but single word reading comprehension is poor
o Identification in assessment → many words that can be read aloud correctly
cannot be understood (neither from print nor speech)
• Letter Identification Dyslexia
o Nature of problem → some or many single letters cannot be identified
o Identification in assessment → inaccurate naming of single letters, poor ability
to match a or e to A
o Good at matching orientation e.g. a sideways P and across different fonts (basic
visual tasks)
o Poor at matching across case (P, p) → severe difficulty developing abstract
representations of letters
• Letter Position Dyslexia
o Nature of problem → letters are identified accurately, but position within the
word is not
o Identification in assessment → errors in reading aloud migratable words, such
as board-broad, nerve-never
o Classified the errors as;
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▪ Migration responses e.g. reading could as cloud
▪ Other word responses e.g. reading could as cold
▪ Nonword responded e.g. reading could as cud
Can Dyslexia Be Treated? Treatments for Dyslexia
• Best way to treat reading problem is to target the particular impairment
• First step to good treatment is good diagnosis
• Careful targeting of the nature of problem in context of a model
• Most children will be impaired on many processes
• Treatments shown to be effective:
o Surface dyslexia → basic flashcards, focusing on irregular words (Brunsdson et
al.)
o Phonological dyslexia → wealth of phonics training programs (Rowse and
Wilshire), systematically instruct children with letter/word sounds
o Letter identification dyslexia → letter training programs like ‘Letterland’,
teaches children to recognise cases in letters
o Letter position dyslexia → following with finger may help (Friedmann and
Rahamim), no proper control studies
• Hyperlexia?
o Difficulty with understanding the meaning of words
o Very hard to treat → basic conceptual/language dififuclties much harder to
treat – not a reading difficulty per se
o Focuses on vocabulary training programs which are effective
APHASIA
• Acquired aphasia → communication disorder, where there was no problems in
learning or understanding language before, but as adults after head injuries, surgery,
brain tumours etc. (usually strokes) then aphasia occurs
o Intellect is generally unimpaired, just unable to communicate
• A disorder of language acquired as a result of brain damage
• Variety of different aspects to this language problem;
o Difficulties in speaking, writing, understanding speech, understanding written
text (Reading for meaning), reading aloud, repeating what is said, gesturing
• What is common is that almost all people with aphasia have difficulty in finding what
to say generally (this is called anomia)
• There may also be problems with:
o Moving speech muscles (dysarthria)
o Planning and coordinating the muscle movements (apraxia of speech)
Causes of Aphasia?
• Damage to those areas of the brain that control language/communication
o Typically the temporo-parietal region of the left hemisphere
• Most people have this damage as a result of a stroke (cerebrovascular accident)
• Aphasia can also occur after:
o Traumatic brain injury (road injuries)
o Brain tumours (surgery to remove these also)
o Brain infections (encephalitis, meningitis)
o Temporarily people can get symptoms of aphasia due to migraines
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Document Summary
Or are they still here: child with dyslexia can be identified if the child still has the opportunity to learn, yet suffers and lays at the bottom of the bell curve distribution. Sounding out of non-lexical" skills: reads new words and nonsense words e. g. gop, mistakes with irregular words e. g. yacht, 2. Wilshire), systematically instruct children with letter/word sounds: letter identification dyslexia letter training programs like letterland", teaches children to recognise cases in letters, letter position dyslexia following with finger may help (friedmann and. Often tested a person"s ability by using picture naming: look at how accurately they can name the pictures compared to people of the same age and education who have not got language problems. This all leads to articulating the word. Thus, two possible levels of impairment in spoken word production can cause semantic errors: impaired word meanings semantic impairment, impaired word forms (impaired access to those forms)
