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Answer: There are several ways to earn money without specific skills: Online S...
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Using the latest flutter version under Android Studio. 

Main dart page got numerous errors - See below link

The entire code (Which contained several pages)listed below in url-

 

The first one -

import 'package:flutter/material.dart';

What is wrong with that line above?
URL doesn't exist not sure why because it used to work before. For some reason it can't find the package

TextStyle(fontWeight: FontWeight.bold, fontSize: 13, color: Colors.black);
TextStyle not define (huh)? Was working before as well.
The rest of the required create class.
Are you guys able to resolve these error messages?

import 'package:flutter/material.dart';

import 'dart:core';

import 'package:final_project1/second.dart';
//test
void main() {
runApp(const App());
}

const text =
TextStyle(fontWeight: FontWeight.bold, fontSize: 13, color: Colors.black);
//for passing image to second screen

Image pic1 = Image.asset('images/burger.jpg');
Image pic2 = Image.asset('images/chicken.jpg');
Image pic3 = Image.asset('images/fries.jpg');

class App extends StatelessWidget {
const App({Key? key}) : super(key: key);

@override
Widget build(BuildContext context) {
return MaterialApp(
theme: ThemeData.dark(),
debugShowCheckedModeBanner: false,
home: const MyApp(),
);
}
}

// ignore: non_constant_identifier_names
double? SmallPrize, MediumPrize, LargePrize;

// ignore: constant_identifier_names
enum OS { Burger, Chicken_Sandwich, French_Fries }

List<String> list = ['Burger', 'Chicken Sandwich', 'French Fries'];

OS? _os;
String? name;
Image pic = Image.asset('images/burger.jpg');
double? sb, mb, lb, ss, ms, ls, sf, mf, lf;
bool button = true;

class MyApp extends StatefulWidget {
const MyApp({Key? key}) : super(key: key);

@override
State<MyApp> createState() => _MyAppState();
}

String b = 'burger';
String c = 'Chicken Sandwich';
String f = 'French fries';

class _MyAppState extends State<MyApp> {
@override
Widget build(BuildContext context) {
return Scaffold(
appBar: AppBar(
toolbarHeight: 100,
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10)),
title: const Text(
'Menu',
style: TextStyle(
fontWeight: FontWeight.bold, fontSize: 30, color: Colors.black),
),
centerTitle: true,
backgroundColor: Colors.deepOrange,
),
body: Column(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.spaceEvenly,
children: [
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
width: 300,
child: Row(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.center,
children: [
SizedBox(
height: 100, width: 100, child: ClipOval(child: pic2)),
const SizedBox(width: 20),
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
child: RadioListTile<OS>(
dense: true,
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(
borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10),
side: const BorderSide(
color: Colors.black, width: 3)),
contentPadding: const EdgeInsets.all(0),
tileColor: Colors.deepOrange,
title: Text(
list.elementAt(1),
style: text,
),
value: OS.Chicken_Sandwich,
groupValue: _os,
onChanged: (val) {
setState(() {
SmallPrize = 5.00;
MediumPrize = 7.00;
LargePrize = 9.00;
name = list.elementAt(1);
pic = pic2;
_os = val;
});
},
),
),
),
],
),
),
),
Expanded(
flex: 1,
child: SizedBox(
width: 300,
child: Row(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.center,
children: [
SizedBox(
height: 100, width: 100, child: ClipOval(child: pic1)),
const SizedBox(width: 20),
Expanded(
child: RadioListTile<OS>(
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(
borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10),
side:
const BorderSide(color: Colors.black, width: 3)),
contentPadding: const EdgeInsets.all(0),
title: Text(
list.first,
style: text,
),
value: OS.Burger,
groupValue: _os,
tileColor: Colors.deepOrange,
onChanged: (val) {
setState(() {
SmallPrize = 5.00;
MediumPrize = 7.00;
LargePrize = 9.00;
name = list.first;
pic = pic1;
_os = val;
});
},
),
),
],
),
),
),
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
width: 300,
child: Row(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.center,
children: [
SizedBox(
height: 100, width: 100, child: ClipOval(child: pic3)),
const SizedBox(width: 20),
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
width: 400,
child: RadioListTile<OS>(
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(
borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10),
side: const BorderSide(
color: Colors.black, width: 3)),
contentPadding: const EdgeInsets.all(0),
tileColor: Colors.deepOrange,
title: Text(
list.last,
style: text,
),
value: OS.French_Fries,
groupValue: _os,
onChanged: (val) {
setState(() {
SmallPrize = 2.50;
MediumPrize = 3.50;
LargePrize = 5.00;
name = list.last;
pic = pic3;
_os = val;
});
},
),
),
),
],
),
),
),
GestureDetector(
onTap: () {
Navigator.push(
context,
MaterialPageRoute(
builder: (context) => Second(
name_item: name.toString(),
pic: pic,
SmallPrize: SmallPrize,
MediumPrize: MediumPrize,
LargePrize: LargePrize,
),
),
);
},
child: Container(
width: double.infinity,
height: 100,
color: Colors.deepOrange,
child: const Center(
child: Text(
'Proceed',
style: TextStyle(
fontWeight: FontWeight.bold,
fontSize: 20,
color: Colors.black),
),
),
),
),
],
),
);
}
}

Answer: The first error in the code is that the "TextStyle" object is not defi...
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Don't know what to put the return value in the return line (The last line) see below for Flutter.

class MyAppState extends State<MyApp>{
@override
Widget build(BuildContext context) {
return;

The entire code listed below -

import 'package:flutter/foundation.dart';
import 'package:flutter/material.dart';

void main() {

runApp(const MyApp());
}
class MyAppState extends State<MyApp>{
@override
Widget build(BuildContext context) {
return;
}
}
class MyApp extends StatefulWidget {

const MyApp({super.key});

@override

MyAppState createState() => MyAppState();
}

class LoginData {
String username = "";
String password = "";
}

class _MyApp extends State {

LoginData loginData = LoginData();
final GlobalKey<FormState> _formkey = GlobalKey<FormState>();
@override

Widget build(BuildContext inContext) {
return MaterialApp(home: Scaffold(
body : Container(
padding : const EdgeInsets.all(50.0),
child : Form(
key: _formkey,
child: Column(
children: [
TextFormField(
keyboardType: TextInputType.emailAddress,
validator: (String? inValue) {
if (inValue?.isEmpty?? true) {
return "Please enter username";
}
return null;
},
onSaved: (String? inValue) {
loginData.username = inValue!;
},

decoration: const InputDecoration(
hintText: "[email protected]",
labelText: "Username (eMail address)"
),
),

TextFormField(

obscureText: true,

validator: (String? inValue) {
if (inValue == null) {
return "Password cannot be null";
} else if (inValue.length < 10) {
return "Password must be >= 10 in length";
}
return null;
},

onSaved: (String? inValue) {
loginData.password = inValue!;
},

decoration: const InputDecoration(
hintText : "Password",
labelText : "Password"
),
),

ElevatedButton(

child : const Text("Log In!"),

onPressed: (){

if (_formkey.currentState!.validate()){

_formkey.currentState!.save();

if (kDebugMode) {
debugPrint ("Username: ${loginData.username}");
}
if (kDebugMode) {
debugPrint ("Password: ${loginData.password}");
}

}

},

),

]

),

),

),

));

}

}


Answer: In the return line of the build method of MyAppState, you need to retu...
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Using the latest flutter version under Android Studio. 

Main dart page got numerous errors - See below link

The first one -

import 'package:flutter/material.dart';
URL doesn't exist not sure why because it used to work before. TextStyle(fontWeight: FontWeight.bold, fontSize: 13, color: Colors.black);
TextStyle not define (huh)? Was working before as well.
The rest of the required create class.
Are you guys able to resolve these error messages?

The entire code (Which contained several pages)listed below in url

 

 

import 'dart:core';
import 'package:flutter/material.dart';
import 'package:final_project1/second.dart';
//test
void main() {
runApp(const App());
}

const text =
TextStyle(fontWeight: FontWeight.bold, fontSize: 13, color: Colors.black);
//for passing image to second screen

Image pic1 = Image.asset('images/burger.jpg');
Image pic2 = Image.asset('images/chicken.jpg');
Image pic3 = Image.asset('images/fries.jpg');

class App extends StatelessWidget {
const App({Key? key}) : super(key: key);

@override
Widget build(BuildContext context) {
return MaterialApp(
theme: ThemeData.dark(),
debugShowCheckedModeBanner: false,
home: const MyApp(),
);
}
}

// ignore: non_constant_identifier_names
double? SmallPrize, MediumPrize, LargePrize;

// ignore: constant_identifier_names
enum OS { Burger, Chicken_Sandwich, French_Fries }

List<String> list = ['Burger', 'Chicken Sandwich', 'French Fries'];

OS? _os;
String? name;
Image pic = Image.asset('images/burger.jpg');
double? sb, mb, lb, ss, ms, ls, sf, mf, lf;
bool button = true;

class MyApp extends StatefulWidget {
const MyApp({Key? key}) : super(key: key);

@override
State<MyApp> createState() => _MyAppState();
}

String b = 'burger';
String c = 'Chicken Sandwich';
String f = 'French fries';

class _MyAppState extends State<MyApp> {
@override
Widget build(BuildContext context) {
return Scaffold(
appBar: AppBar(
toolbarHeight: 100,
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10)),
title: const Text(
'Menu',
style: TextStyle(
fontWeight: FontWeight.bold, fontSize: 30, color: Colors.black),
),
centerTitle: true,
backgroundColor: Colors.deepOrange,
),
body: Column(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.spaceEvenly,
children: [
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
width: 300,
child: Row(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.center,
children: [
SizedBox(
height: 100, width: 100, child: ClipOval(child: pic2)),
const SizedBox(width: 20),
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
child: RadioListTile<OS>(
dense: true,
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(
borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10),
side: const BorderSide(
color: Colors.black, width: 3)),
contentPadding: const EdgeInsets.all(0),
tileColor: Colors.deepOrange,
title: Text(
list.elementAt(1),
style: text,
),
value: OS.Chicken_Sandwich,
groupValue: _os,
onChanged: (val) {
setState(() {
SmallPrize = 5.00;
MediumPrize = 7.00;
LargePrize = 9.00;
name = list.elementAt(1);
pic = pic2;
_os = val;
});
},
),
),
),
],
),
),
),
Expanded(
flex: 1,
child: SizedBox(
width: 300,
child: Row(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.center,
children: [
SizedBox(
height: 100, width: 100, child: ClipOval(child: pic1)),
const SizedBox(width: 20),
Expanded(
child: RadioListTile<OS>(
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(
borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10),
side:
const BorderSide(color: Colors.black, width: 3)),
contentPadding: const EdgeInsets.all(0),
title: Text(
list.first,
style: text,
),
value: OS.Burger,
groupValue: _os,
tileColor: Colors.deepOrange,
onChanged: (val) {
setState(() {
SmallPrize = 5.00;
MediumPrize = 7.00;
LargePrize = 9.00;
name = list.first;
pic = pic1;
_os = val;
});
},
),
),
],
),
),
),
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
width: 300,
child: Row(
mainAxisAlignment: MainAxisAlignment.center,
children: [
SizedBox(
height: 100, width: 100, child: ClipOval(child: pic3)),
const SizedBox(width: 20),
Expanded(
child: SizedBox(
width: 400,
child: RadioListTile<OS>(
shape: RoundedRectangleBorder(
borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(10),
side: const BorderSide(
color: Colors.black, width: 3)),
contentPadding: const EdgeInsets.all(0),
tileColor: Colors.deepOrange,
title: Text(
list.last,
style: text,
),
value: OS.French_Fries,
groupValue: _os,
onChanged: (val) {
setState(() {
SmallPrize = 2.50;
MediumPrize = 3.50;
LargePrize = 5.00;
name = list.last;
pic = pic3;
_os = val;
});
},
),
),
),
],
),
),
),
GestureDetector(
onTap: () {
Navigator.push(
context,
MaterialPageRoute(
builder: (context) => Second(
name_item: name.toString(),
pic: pic,
SmallPrize: SmallPrize,
MediumPrize: MediumPrize,
LargePrize: LargePrize,
),
),
);
},
child: Container(
width: double.infinity,
height: 100,
color: Colors.deepOrange,
child: const Center(
child: Text(
'Proceed',
style: TextStyle(
fontWeight: FontWeight.bold,
fontSize: 20,
color: Colors.black),
),
),
),
),
],
),
);
}
}

Answer: I'm sorry, I cannot see the rest of the code you have linked. However,...
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Section 3 - Programming Questions 7. Role playing video games (RPGs) form a loosely defined genre of video games in which the player controls a small number of game characters. These characters form a group of adventurers whose purpose is to fulfill one or many quests. A common feature of RPGs is that the group of adventurers can collect various items and keep them for future me, sach items are added to the player's inventory. In this question, you will write classes which could be used to manage a player's inventory in an RPG. Part 1 Write a class called Item. An Item object represents an entire category of items carried by a group of adventurers, and each Item object has the following attributes: • The description of the items in this category (a String) The quantity of tems in this category that the group of adventurers is currently carrying can int). For example, suppose the group of adventurers is carrying 50 Heal Potions and 10 Life Potions. The SO Heal Pations would he represented by a single Item object, the value of the description attribute of this item object would be the string "Heal Potion, and the value of the quantity attribute of this Item object woukl be 50. The 10 Life Potions would also be represented by a single Item object, which is different from the Ttem object representing the Heal Potions. The value of the description attribute of this second Ttem object would he Life Potion", and the value of the quantity attribute of this second liem object would be 10. The Item class MUST provide the following INSTANCE methods, note that in the method descrip tions below, the phrase "this Item" means the item on which the method in question is called • A constructor, which takes as its only parameter a string representing the description attribute of the newly created Item. This constructor sets the quantity attribute of the newly created Item to 1. • A method called get Description(), which takes no parameters and returns a string representing the value of the description attribute of this Item • A method called getQuantity O. which takes no parameters and returns an int represent ing the value of the quantity attribute of this Item • A method called set Quantity), which takes a value of type int as its only parameter and returns nothing. This method changes the value of the quantity attribute of this Item so that its new value is equal to the int value this method accepts as parameter, this happens regardless of what the value of the int parameter is, even if it represents a sensical value Note that you MUST respect proper encapsulation practices that is, the attributes and methods of your class MUST he declared using the proper visibility modifiers. Part 2 Write a class called Inventory, which represents the inventory of a group of adventures. An Inventory object has only one attributes a collection of items, which specifies all the types of items that a group of adventurers is currently carrying along with the mumber of items of each type that the group is carrying Inventory objects MUST keep track of the items being carried by adventurers using a PLAIN ARRAY of Items, you MUST NOT se ArrayLists (or any other class which is part of the the Java Collection Framework such as Linkedin.ist) within the Inventory class under ANY circumstances. Each position in the array contains cither • The address of an Item object in memory, an Item is considered to be in the Inventory if and only if its address in memory is stored in the array . null Fach Item object in the inventory MUST appear exactly once in this array, in other words, there MUST NOT be any duplicate elements in the array under ANY circumstances, whether these dupli cates are deep copies or aliases The Inventory class MUST provide the following INSTANCE methods, note that an actual im plementation used in an RPG would provide additional methods, in particular methods to add an item to the Inventory. Also note that in the method descriptions below, the phrase "this inventory" means "the Inventory on which the method in question is called • A constructor, which takes a value of type int as its only parameter, and initializes the newly created Inventory so that the number of item types it can store is equal to the value of the parameter. The number of item types which can be stored in the Inventory is fixed during instantiation, and can never change during the lifetime of the Inventory object • A method called get.Capacity (), which takes no parameters and returns a value of type int representing the capacity of this Inventory (that is, the number of different item types which can be stored in this Inventory). • A method called getItem(), which takes a value of type int as its only parameter, and returns the Item Nered at the commenpanding position in the array holding the Items stond in this Inventory, this method returns null if the element at the position specified by the parameter value is null or if the parameter represents an invalid index in this array. • A method called consumeOne(), which takes as its only parameter a string represent ing the description of an item, and returns a value of type boolean. The method searches the inventory for an item whose description is equal to the parameter String, with the comparison being performed in a case-INSENSITIVE manner. If no such Ttem exists in the inventory, the method returns false, and the state of the Inventory does not change. On the other hand, if such an Item exist in the inventory, the method returns true and modifies the state of the Inventory as follows: -If the quantity attribute of the item is greater than or equal to 2, then its value is reduced by 1. -If the quantity attribute of the Item is equal to 1, then the item is removed from the Inventory. Note that removing an Item can be done by simply assigning null to the amay position that contains it. The state of the array before and after calling this method can consist of addresses of Item objects interspersed with null elements. For example, in an Inventory whose capacity is 20, it is possible that the array contains the addresses of Item objects al positions 3 and 17. while the other amay position contains null. This implies that the method does NOT have to "compact the array so that the addresses of all the actual tem objects appear at the beginning of the array while all the null elements appear at the end. You MAY assume that the string parameter is not null; in other words, your method does not have to handle cases in which the string parameter is indeed null Akmal notes • You MUST respect proper encapulation practices, that is the attributes and methods of your class MUST be declared using the proper visibility modifiers. • Y MUNT call the methods you were asked to write in the previous part to retrieve the descrip tion and quantity attributes of an Item object, or to change the quantity attribute of an Item object. You MAY me that the item class has been implemented correctly, even if you did not successfully complete the previous part WRITE YOUR Inventory CLASS IN THE SPACE BELOW:
class Item { private String description; private int quantity; public Item(Str...
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8. Write a class called WordSet representing a set of String objects which can contain an arbitrary number of strings, limited only by the memory available to the Java Virtual Machine. A set is a collection of elements, however, unlike a list, a set cannot contain duplicate elements. Therefore, as its name implies, a WordSet object cannot contain duplicate Strings that is, if one attempts to da String to a Wordset, and the wordset already contains an element which is equal to this string, the attempt will fail and the state of the Wordset will not change. All String comparisons performed in the methods defined in the Wordset class are done in a Case SENSITIVE manner. Note that in the method descriptions below, the phrase "this Wordset" means "the Wordset on which the method in question is called." Your Wordset class MUST provide the following INSTANCE methods • A constructor, which takes no parameters and initializes the new Wordset ohject so that it contains no elements • A method called add(), which takes as its only parameter a string and returns a value of type boolean. If this Wordset already contains a string which is equal to the parameter string, or the parameter String is null, then the state of this Wordset does not change and the method return false; otherwise, the parameter String is added to this Wordset. and the method returns true. • A method called remove().which takes as its only parameter a string and returns a value of type boolean. If this wordSet contains a string which is equal to the parameter String this string is removed from the WordSet and the method returns true. On the other hand, if the string parameter is null or this Wordset does not contain a string which is equal to the parameter string, then the state of this wordset does not change, and the method return false. • A method called get.size(), which takes no parameters and returns the number of strings currently stored in this Wordset. This method MUST NOT change the state of this Wordset. • A method called isMember(). which takes as its only parameter a string and retumsa value of type boolean which is true if this wordset contains the parameter String false otherwise. If the parameter String is null, this method also return false. This method MUST NOT change the state of this wordset. • A method called computebirrerence().which takes as its only parameter a Wordset and returns a new Wordset representing the difference between this wordset and the parameter Wordset: in other words, the WordSet returned by this method contains all the strings that are in this wordset, but not in the parameter Wordset. If the parameter Wordset contains all the elements of this WordSet or this WordSet contains no elements, then this method returns a new Wordset containing no elements. Finally, if the parameter Wordset is null or contains ne strings, then this method returns a new wordset which contains all the elements of this wordset. This method MUST NOT change the state of this wordset or the parameter Wordset. • A method called tostring , which takes the parameters and turns a string which is the textual representation of this wordset. This textual representation consists of the concatena tion of the following clements - The String - The text representation of each clement in the WordSet; cach pair of adjacent clements is separated by the String", but this String MUST NOT appear before the first clement or after the last element - The String") The order in which the elements of this Wordset appear in the textual representation generated by the tostring() method does not matter. If the WordSet contains to Brings, then the textual representation returned by this method is ". Note that you MUST respect proper encapsulation practices that is, the attributes and methods of your class MUST be declared using the proper visibility modifier NINT Um an array list (of string) to keep track of the string stored in a wordt ob joot Is there a method defined in the Array loist class which determines whether in clementis already wored in an array ist, and which will do a case-sensitive comparison when liked on an Arraylint of strings? See the pages 24-26 of this examination for information about potentially useful methods defined by the ArrayList class WRITE YOUR Wordset CLASS IN THE SPACE BELOW:
Answer: Step-by-step explanation:import java.util.ArrayList;public class WordS...
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Write a program called Lab 5 that has 3 methods and a main method:
1) Method isUserNameValid has 1 parameter of type string and the method returns a value of type
boolean. If the parameter has less than 8 characters then the method returns false, otherwise it
returns true.
2) Method compare has 3 parameters all of type int and has a String return type. This method will
return
a. “All Same” if all 3 parameters are equal,
b. “All Different” if all 3 parameters are different.
c. “Mix number(s)” two of the numbers are the same and the 3rd is different.
3) Method isValid has 1 parameter of type int and returns a boolean value; the method returns true if
the parameter is in the range 0,…,100 inclusive, otherwise the method returns false.
4) Main method. I want you to test methods isValid & isUsernameValid one time with a valid data
and another time with an invalid data. As for method compare test it 3 times so you can get the 3
different possible outcomes.
Example to test the isUserNameValid method

Answer:Here is an implementation in Java: Step-by-step explanation:public clas...
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Answer: function is String?, but you are returning "Please enter username" whi...
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Answer: Step-by-step explanation: Completeness" in computer science refers to ...
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Answer: "The sound of birds chirping and the rustling of leaves in the wind is...
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We are going to use the acronym STOP THE ELF to help us distinguish when we should use a form of the verb ser or estar:

Ser

Time (time on a clock, day of the week) Origin/Occupation

Physical trait/personality

Examples:

(S) ser

(T) Hoy es miércoles. Son las once y dieciocho de la noche.

(O) Yo soy de Miami, Florida. Uds. son de Georgia. Bad Bunny es de Puerto Rico.

(P) Mi madre es enfermera. Mis padres son estrictos.

THE

Estar Location Feelings

(E) estar

(L) Nosotros estamos en Georgia. Georgia está cerca de Alabama. Los libros están en la mochila.

(F) Yo estoy cansado. Mis hermanas están preocupadas. Uds. están listos para estudiar. (A useful expression is estar listo/a para +

action = to be ready to do something.)

Exercise. In each example, please explain why a form of ser or

estar is used, based on the acronym STOP THE ELF.

1. Mañana es viernes.

2. Mi familia y yo estamos muy contentos. 3. Son las ocho menos quince.

4. Mi iPad está en mi mochila.

5. Mis abuelos son de Colombia.

6. Mis abuelos ahora están en Riverdale.

7. Tú eres un buen estudiante.

8. Mis hermanos son trabajadores.

9. Nosotros estamos listos para ir a la playa. 10. Mi hermana está muy bien.

Exercise. Please select the most appropriate form of the verb ser or estar, based on the context.

1. Mi día favorito (es, está) viernes.

2. Ahora mis amigos (son, están) en el trabajo.

3. Mis mejores amigos (son, están) de Ixtapa, México.

4. Mi madre (es, está) trabajadora.

5. Yo (soy, estoy) tu compañera de clase.

6. Mi abuela (es, está) mi pariente favorito.

7. Tú (eres, estás) bien, ¿no?

8. ¿Cómo (es, está) tu novio/a ideal? ¿Serio/a? ¿Trabajador/a? 9. Mi madre (es, está) enfermera [nurse].

10. ¿(Son, Están) estrictos tus padres?

Answer: Mi día favorito es viernes. (Ser) Ahora mis amigos están en el trabajo...
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So, how to you feel with ser and estar? Let's try one more practice:

 

 

 

Exercise. Please fill-in each blank with the correct form of the verb

ser or estar.

 

 

 

Beyoncé. ¡Hola! ¿Cómo (1)________________ tú?

 

Lady Gaga: (Yo) (2)________________ muy bien. ¿Y tú?

 

Beyoncé: Cansada…. ¿De dónde (3)________________ tú?

 

Lady Gaga: Yo (4)_____________ de Nueva York. ¿Y tú?

 

Beyoncé: (5)_______________ de Houston, TX.

 

Lady Gaga: ¿Dónde (6)______________ Jay-Z? ¿De dónde (7)__________

 

   él?

 

Beyoncé: Él (8)_____________ de Nueva York también. Ahora [now]

(9)_______________en casa. No... Él y un amigo (10)_____________ en el

centro comercial [mall]. Necesito (11)________________ en el trabajo

pronto.

 

Lady Gaga: ¡Uf! Jay-Z y tú (12)______________ novios perfectos.

Necesito regresar a casa. Hoy (13)_______________ miércoles y

(14)_______________ las 8:30 de la mañana. Necesito cantar.

 

Beyoncé: Hasta pronto.

 

Lady Gaga: Chau. Hasta pronto.

Answer: Beyoncé. ¡Hola! ¿Cómo estás tú? Lady Gaga: (Yo) estoy muy bien. ¿Y tú?...
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Checkpoint 4

• Exercise PART A. Please match each subject with the most logical form.

 

1 Mi madre: 2. Mis amigos:

 

tengo                              tengo

tienes                             tienes

tiene                              tiene

tenemos                            tenemos

tienen                             tienen

 

3 Yo: 4. Nuestros amigos:

 

tengo                              tengo

tienes                             tienes

tiene                              tiene

tenemos                            tenemos

tienen                             tienen

 

 

 

5 Nuestra clase: 6. Mi novia:

 

tengo                              tengo

tienes                             tienes

tiene                              tiene

tenemos                            tenemos

tienen                             tienen

 

7 Tú: 8. Tu sobrina:

 

tengo                              tengo

tienes                             tienes

tiene                              tiene

tenemos                            tenemos

tienen                             tienen

 

9 Ud.: 10. Uds.:

 

tengo                              tengo

tienes                             tienes

tiene                              tiene

tenemos                            tenemos

tienen                             tienen

 

Answer: Mi madre: tiene Mis amigos: tienen Yo: tengo Nuestros amigos: tienen N...
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Answer: Step-by-step explanation:The number of ways to select 3 toppings from ...
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Introduction to Statistics

Task 6: Using the Z table to Link Raw Scores, Z scores, and Proportions or Percents
The entire normal distribution is 1.00(100%) and each Z value defines a point in the normal distribution where a certain proportion lies below the Z value and another proportion lies above it. Sometimes you have a Z value and want to know the proportion above or below. Sometimes you have a particular proportion in mind and you need to know what Z value, or raw score defines that proportion. For this we use a Unit Normal Table (aka Z table.)
Complete the table. A few Z values have been provided. Look up the others by first locating the described proportion in the Z table, then finding the Z value that goes with that proportion. For these assignments use only the table provided in the GWFW textbook or the one posted in Discussions. Do not use any other source or your answers may be marked wrong.
 
Reminder:     Proportion * 100=
Percent         (Percent/100) = Proportion
 
There are two Options for converting a Z value to a value in a distribution with a know mean and standard deviation. Use whichever you prefer.
Basic Formula:      Score = + ()      !! You must make sure you have the correct sign for Z!!
Alternate:    You can use the absolute value of Z from the table, and modify the formula to either add to the mean or subtract from it. Visualizers may prefer this method.
For locations below the mean use: Score = - ()
For locations above the mean use: Score = + ()
Check that your answers make sense. (e.g., lower tail values should be lower than the mean.)
 
Use the same mean and standard deviation values reported in Tasks 1 and 2 .
Round answers to 2 decimals.
 
Location: 'The point where...' Z HR RR
Exactly 33% is in the lower tail      
At least 0.10 is in the in the upper tail      
No more than 5% is in the upper tail 1.65    
Exactly 0.025 is in the lower tail -1.96    
Exactly 2.5% is in the upper tail      
No more than 1% is in the lower tail      
No more than 0.005 is the upper tail 2.58    
 
 
Answer: Step-by-step explanation: Location: The point where ... Z HR RR Exactl...
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Task 5: Visualization Exercise: Normal Curve + Standard Scores + Raw Scores + Interpretation
This is an exercise to help solidify your understanding by visualizing how positions within a data set relate to the normal curve, standard scores, and interpretative ranges.
Complete the table.
For the Z distribution: The mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 1 .
For the T distribution: The mean is 50 and the standard deviation is 10
For the IQ distribution: The mean is 100 and the standard deviation is 15 .
For HR and RR: Use the whole number rounded mean and standard deviation from Task 3.
 
 
Scale -3 SD      -2 SD    -1 SD     Mean +1 SD    +2 SD     +3 SD
Z                                                       0
T                                                       50
IQ                                                     100
HR
RR
 
  <-2 SD <-1 SD -1 to +1 > +1 SD >+2 SD
Category Range Extremely Low Below Average Average Above Average Extremely High
  2.5% 13.5% 68% 13.5% 2.5%

Category ranges correspond to the different shades of green in the diagram.

Answer: Scale -3 SD -2 SD -1 SD Mean +1 SD +2 SD +3 SD Z Extremely Low Low Ave...
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7.Why is it that a firm will typically not pay for general training?

a. The skills gained from general training are transferable to other firms.

b. General training usually doesn't increase worker productivity.

c. General training is too expensive.

d. General training is free.

8. "Experience squared" enters into the Mincer Earnings function with a negative coefficient because

a. Earnings will fall to zero after age 65.

b. Earnings increase linearly with experience.

c. Earnings increase at a decreasing rate at experience rises.

d. Earnings fall as experience rises.

9. Juanita is a high school graduate, considering going to law school. If she does, she will spend $60,000 on tuition and books to get a college education (during the first time period), $120,000 on tuition and books to get a law degree (during the second time period), and her law degree will earn her $1,000,000 more during the remainder of her work-life, relative to a high school graduate (during the third time period). Juanita's time preference for money is associated with a per-period interest rate of 20 percent. Approximately what is Juanita's present value of obtaining a law degree?

a. $1,000,000

b. $445,370

c. $820,000

d. $712,037

10. What is the present value of $1000 received 10 years from now, if the interest rate is 5%?

a. $1000

b. $614

c. $952

d. $20,000

11. Why might people choose to go to college?

a. Because a college education signals to firms that the worker is highly motivated.

b. Because a college education increases one's productivity, which will be rewarded in the labor market with higher wages.

c. Because one cannot find employment.

d. All of the above.

12. If an employer hires a worker and offers job specific training during the first period, in the second period, the employer will pay the worker

a. the wage that the worker could earn at another firm.

b. a wage above the worker's value of marginal product.

c. a wage equal to the worker's value of marginal product.

d. a wage between the wage they would be paid at another firm, and the value of their marginal product.

13. An employer who offers general training during the first period of employment will pay a wage equal to

a. the cost of the training.

b. the worker's value of marginal product minus the cost of training during the first period.

c. the worker's value of marginal product plus the cost of training during the first period.

d. the worker's value of marginal product during the first period.

14. Since median weekly earnings are $769, and mean weekly earnings are $959, we know that

a. the wage distribution is skewed with a long left tail.

b. half of all workers earn less than $928 a week.

c. half of all workers earn less than $760 a week.

d. half of all workers earn more than $928 a week.

15. If the area between the Lorenz Curve and the diagonal equality line is .3, the Gini coefficient is

a. 0.6

b. 0.4

c. 0.3

d. 0.5

Answer: Step-by-step explanation: c. The ability to produce more output. b. Th...
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6.What is an example of specific job training?

a. Learning how to type.

b. Obtaining a GED.

c. Becoming stronger.

d. Learning how to use one firm's payroll system.

7.Why is it that a firm will typically not pay for general training?

a. The skills gained from general training are transferable to other firms.

b. General training usually doesn't increase worker productivity.

c. General training is too expensive.

d. General training is free.

8. "Experience squared" enters into the Mincer Earnings function with a negative coefficient because

a. Earnings will fall to zero after age 65.

b. Earnings increase linearly with experience.

c. Earnings increase at a decreasing rate at experience rises.

d. Earnings fall as experience rises.

9. Juanita is a high school graduate, considering going to law school. If she does, she will spend $60,000 on tuition and books to get a college education (during the first time period), $120,000 on tuition and books to get a law degree (during the second time period), and her law degree will earn her $1,000,000 more during the remainder of her work-life, relative to a high school graduate (during the third time period). Juanita's time preference for money is associated with a per-period interest rate of 20 percent. Approximately what is Juanita's present value of obtaining a law degree?

a. $1,000,000

b. $445,370

c. $820,000

d. $712,037

10. What is the present value of $1000 received 10 years from now, if the interest rate is 5%?

a. $1000

b. $614

c. $952

d. $20,000

11. Why might people choose to go to college?

a. Because a college education signals to firms that the worker is highly motivated.

b. Because a college education increases one's productivity, which will be rewarded in the labor market with higher wages.

c. Because one cannot find employment.

d. All of the above.

12. If an employer hires a worker and offers job specific training during the first period, in the second period, the employer will pay the worker

a. the wage that the worker could earn at another firm.

b. a wage above the worker's value of marginal product.

c. a wage equal to the worker's value of marginal product.

d. a wage between the wage they would be paid at another firm, and the value of their marginal product.

13. An employer who offers general training during the first period of employment will pay a wage equal to

a. the cost of the training.

b. the worker's value of marginal product minus the cost of training during the first period.

c. the worker's value of marginal product plus the cost of training during the first period.

d. the worker's value of marginal product during the first period.

14. Since median weekly earnings are $769, and mean weekly earnings are $959, we know that

a. the wage distribution is skewed with a long left tail.

b. half of all workers earn less than $928 a week.

c. half of all workers earn less than $760 a week.

d. half of all workers earn more than $928 a week.

15. If the area between the Lorenz Curve and the diagonal equality line is .3, the Gini coefficient is

a. 0.6

b. 0.4

c. 0.3

d. 0.5

Answer: Step-by-step explanation: d. Learning how to use one firm's payroll sy...
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9. Juanita is a high school graduate, considering going to law school. If she does, she will spend $60,000 on tuition and books to get a college education (during the first time period), $120,000 on tuition and books to get a law degree (during the second time period), and her law degree will earn her $1,000,000 more during the remainder of her work-life, relative to a high school graduate (during the third time period). Juanita's time preference for money is associated with a per-period interest rate of 20 percent. Approximately what is Juanita's present value of obtaining a law degree?

a. $1,000,000

b. $445,370

c. $820,000

d. $712,037

10. What is the present value of $1000 received 10 years from now, if the interest rate is 5%?

a. $1000

b. $614

c. $952

d. $20,000

11. Why might people choose to go to college?

a. Because a college education signals to firms that the worker is highly motivated.

b. Because a college education increases one's productivity, which will be rewarded in the labor market with higher wages.

c. Because one cannot find employment.

d. All of the above.

Answer: b. $952 d. All of the above.
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3. Catherine is considering going to medical school. If she does, she will spend $80,000 on tuition and books to get a college education (during the first time period), $120,000 on tuition and books to get a medical degree (during the second time period), and her medical degree will earn her $500,000 during the remainder of her work-life (during the third time period). Her time preference for money (her discount rate) is 20 percent.

a. What is Catherine's present value of obtaining a medical degree?

b. Suppose that Catherine is also considering an alternative career path, in which she obtains a college education in the first period (with the same costs as before) and enters the work force immediately as a marketing analyst. She earns $100,000 in the second period and $200,000 in the third period under this option. Will she choose to become a doctor or a marketing analyst? Show your work.

c. If Catherine’s discount rate is 10 percent, will this change her decision? Show your work.

Answer: Step-by-step explanation: a. To calculate the present value of obtaini...
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Answer: a) To calculate the present value of obtaining a master's degree, we n...
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Answer: Step-by-step explanation: he present value of Maria obtaining a law de...
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Answer:Compressive stress. the Pacific plate boundary, where two tectonic plat...
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Answer: Compression typically occurs in geological plate boundaries, such as c...
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Answer: The pregnancy class/category for Oxycodone is C, meaning that it has b...
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Answer: Step-by-step explanation:1. a mountain range. 2. measure earthquakes a...
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8. "Experience squared" enters into the Mincer Earnings function with a negative coefficient because

a. Earnings will fall to zero after age 65.

b. Earnings increase linearly with experience.

c. Earnings increase at a decreasing rate at experience rises.

d. Earnings fall as experience rises.

9. Juanita is a high school graduate, considering going to law school. If she does, she will spend $60,000 on tuition and books to get a college education (during the first time period), $120,000 on tuition and books to get a law degree (during the second time period), and her law degree will earn her $1,000,000 more during the remainder of her work-life, relative to a high school graduate (during the third time period). Juanita's time preference for money is associated with a per-period interest rate of 20 percent. Approximately what is Juanita's present value of obtaining a law degree?

a. $1,000,000

b. $445,370

c. $820,000

d. $712,037

10. What is the present value of $1000 received 10 years from now, if the interest rate is 5%?

a. $1000

b. $614

c. $952

d. $20,000

11. Why might people choose to go to college?

a. Because a college education signals to firms that the worker is highly motivated.

b. Because a college education increases one's productivity, which will be rewarded in the labor market with higher wages.

c. Because one cannot find employment.

d. All of the above.

Answer: b. $445,370 b. $614 d. All of the above.
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6.What is an example of specific job training?

a. Learning how to type.

b. Obtaining a GED.

c. Becoming stronger.

d. Learning how to use one firm's payroll system.

7.Why is it that a firm will typically not pay for general training?

a. The skills gained from general training are transferable to other firms.

b. General training usually doesn't increase worker productivity.

c. General training is too expensive.

d. General training is free.

8. "Experience squared" enters into the Mincer Earnings function with a negative coefficient because

a. Earnings will fall to zero after age 65.

b. Earnings increase linearly with experience.

c. Earnings increase at a decreasing rate at experience rises.

d. Earnings fall as experience rises.

9. Juanita is a high school graduate, considering going to law school. If she does, she will spend $60,000 on tuition and books to get a college education (during the first time period), $120,000 on tuition and books to get a law degree (during the second time period), and her law degree will earn her $1,000,000 more during the remainder of her work-life, relative to a high school graduate (during the third time period). Juanita's time preference for money is associated with a per-period interest rate of 20 percent. Approximately what is Juanita's present value of obtaining a law degree?

a. $1,000,000

b. $445,370

c. $820,000

d. $712,037

10. What is the present value of $1000 received 10 years from now, if the interest rate is 5%?

a. $1000

b. $614

c. $952

d. $20,000

11. Why might people choose to go to college?

a. Because a college education signals to firms that the worker is highly motivated.

b. Because a college education increases one's productivity, which will be rewarded in the labor market with higher wages.

c. Because one cannot find employment.

d. All of the above.

12. If an employer hires a worker and offers job specific training during the first period, in the second period, the employer will pay the worker

a. the wage that the worker could earn at another firm.

b. a wage above the worker's value of marginal product.

c. a wage equal to the worker's value of marginal product.

d. a wage between the wage they would be paid at another firm, and the value of their marginal product.

13. An employer who offers general training during the first period of employment will pay a wage equal to

a. the cost of the training.

b. the worker's value of marginal product minus the cost of training during the first period.

c. the worker's value of marginal product plus the cost of training during the first period.

d. the worker's value of marginal product during the first period.

14. Since median weekly earnings are $769, and mean weekly earnings are $959, we know that

a. the wage distribution is skewed with a long left tail.

b. half of all workers earn less than $928 a week.

c. half of all workers earn less than $760 a week.

d. half of all workers earn more than $928 a week.

15. If the area between the Lorenz Curve and the diagonal equality line is .3, the Gini coefficient is

a. 0.6

b. 0.4

c. 0.3

d. 0.5

Answer: Step-by-step explanation: The skills gained from general training are ...
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Answer: Step-by-step explanation:B. Learning how to use the firm's payroll sys...
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The wage-schooling locus is

A. downward sloping because education is generally productive.

B.

upward sloping because education is generally productive.

C.

backward bending.

D.

horizontal because wages are unrelated to schooling.

E.

vertical because education is a public good.

Present value calculations allow one to determine

A.

the return to an uncertain asset.

B.

the present-day costs and/or benefits of various options.

C.

the utility value of a particular option.

D.

the social cost of financial calculations.

E.

the real wage.

What is an example of specific job training?

A.

Learning word-processing skills.

B.

Learning how to use the firm's payroll system.

C.

Obtaining a GED.

D.

Becoming stronger.

E.

Passing the CPA exam.

What is an example of general job training?

A.

Learning how to use a forklift.

B.

Learning how to weld.

C.

Reading a book on techniques for managing large groups of workers involved on team projects.

D.

Attending an industry convention on "best practices."

E.

All of the above.

Why is it that a firm will typically not pay for general training?

A.

General training is free.

B.

General training is too expensive.

C.

The benefits of general training depreciate quickly.

D.

General training usually doesn't increase worker productivity.

E.

The skills gained from the general training are transferable to other firms.

What is the stopping rule for choosing one's years of schooling?

A.

End one's schooling when the return from more schooling is zero.

B.

End one's schooling when the cost of one more year of schooling is zero.

C.

End one's schooling after college.

D.

End one's schooling when the rate of return to one more year of schooling equals the worker's rate of discount.

E.

End one's schooling when the worker's rate of discount equals zero.

Why might people choose to go to college?

A.

Because a college education signals to firms that the worker is highly motivated.

B.

Because a college education increases one's productivity, which will be rewarded in the labor market with higher wages.

C.

Because someone enjoys the process of becoming educated.

D.

Because one cannot find employment.

E.

All of the above.

Human capital refers to

A.

the amount of financial capital owned by firm owners.

B.

the amount of financial capital owned by workers.

C.

the amount of physical capital a firm owns (per worker it employs).

D.

the unique set of abilities and skills embedded in workers.

E.

the amount of physical capital produced by labor.

The social rate of return to schooling

A.

includes all private benefits to schooling.

B.

includes the signaling benefits to schooling.

C.

includes the increase in national income resulting from education.

D.

does not take into account the costs of education.

E.

are always well defined.

Which group of workers tends to have the highest unemployment rate among high school dropouts?

A.

Men

B.

Women

C.

Blacks

D.

Hispanics

E.

Whites
Answer: Step-by-step explanation: The wage-schooling locus is B. upward slopin...
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1. According to the signaling theory of education,

a. The level of education or training directly measures the productivity of the worker.

b. Education and training function as utility-generating goods from the worker's perspective.

c. Education and training do not contribute directly to productivity, but act as a filter to screen candidates.

d. The social rate of return to education is greater than the private rate of return.

2. The essence of human capital theory is that:

a. Firms spend money on their capital stock and equipment in order for labour to become more productive.

b. Investments are made in human resources so as to improve their productivity and, therefore, their earnings.

c. All workers who want to increase their salary should obtain a university diploma.

d. Workers invested in higher education in order to send a signal to potential employers regarding their underlying ability.

3. The opportunity cost of obtaining human capital is:

a. the job experience lost while attending school.

b. the direct cost of books, supplies, and tuition fees.

c. the income foregone while acquiring it.

d. the estimate of the increase in salary that results from the acquisition of skills.

4. The shape of the "age-earnings" profiles reflect all of the following, except that:

a. earnings tend to increase with age but at a deceasing rate.

b. individuals generally continue to make human capital investments in the form of on-the-job training and work experience once they have entered the labour force.

c. the earnings of individuals with higher levels of education are generally higher than those with fewer years of education.

d. older, more experienced workers have higher wage profiles than younger workers.

5. In the context of investments in human capital, perfect capital markets imply all of the following, except that:

a. An individual weighs the costs against the benefits based on certain ways of calcuating them.

b. An individual can base his/her human capital decision on total lifetime income.

c. An individual faces no liquidity constraints as they can borrow against expected future income.

d. An individual makes an investment decision based on his/her current income.

6. The decision to invest in human capital does not involve which of the following?

a. The costs of tuition and books

b. Forgone earnings

c. Projected earnings

d. None of the choices are correct.

7. The rule for optimal human capital investment is that:

a. the individual should increase years of education until the discounted present value of the benefits of an additional year of education equals the discounted present value of the additional costs.

b. the individual should increase years of education until the discounted present value of the benefits of an additional year of education is less than the discounted present value of the additional costs.

c. the individual should increase years of education until the discounted present value of the benefits of an additional year of education is greater than the discounted present value of the additional costs.

d. the individual should increase years of education until the discounted present value of the benefits of all of the years of education equals the discounted present value of all of the associated costs.

Answer: Step-by-step explanation: c. Education and training do not contribute ...
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Answer:d. b and c.
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Answer: Step-by-step explanation: This comparison may not be informative about...
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Individals are of two di §erent abilities: high (H) and low (L). An individual knows his or her own

ability but an employer does not. Employers believe that both types of individuals are equally likely

in the population, and therefore has an initial (prior) belief that an individual is high ability with

probability 1. Before an individual looks for a job, he or she has an opportunity to go to college. 2

Assume that attending college does not change an individualiÌs ability; this problem shows that even in

this circumstance, college can perform a useful social function. The e §ort cost of attending college is

di §erent for individuals of di §erent abilities. In order to attend college, high ability individuals must

expend e §ort 1, and low ability individuals must expend e §ort 1, where a < 3 (this means that a 3a

low ability individual has a higher cost of attending college). Not attending college costs 0. After

observing an individualiÌs education (that is, whether he or she attended college) an employer makes

the individual a job o §er. The wage that the individual receives is equal to the employeriÌs belief that

the individual is high ability, given the level of schooling that the individual has chosen to acquire. For

example, if the employer believes that a college graduate is high ability with probability 2 he will o §er 3

a college graduate a wage of 2 . If he believes that an individal with no college education is high ability 3

with probability 1 , he will o §er an individual without college a wage of 1 : An individualiÌs payo § is 44

equal to his wage, minus the cost of education..

First consider a separating equilibrium. In a separating equilibrium, high ability individuals attend college, but low ability individuals do not.

  1. (a) If the employer observes that an individual did not attend college, what is his belief about the individualiÌs ability? What wage will he o §er individuals who do not attend college?

  2. (b) If the employer observes that an individual did attend college, what is his belief about the indi- vidualiÌs ability? What wage will he o §er individuals who attend college?

  3. (c) Given the wages paid to college graduates and those who do not attend, will the high-ability individual chooose to attend college? (Hint: compare the payo § of attending college for the high ability graduate to the payo § of not attending college)

  4. (d) Given the wages paid to college graduates and those who do not attend, for which values of a will the low-ability individual chooose to attend college? (Hint: compare the payo § of attending college for the low ability graduate to the payo § of not attending college)

  5. (e) In a separating equilibrium, a low ability individual does not attend college. For which values of a is this expectation consistent with the low ability individualiÌs strategy?

    Now, consider a pooling equilibrium in which all individuals attend college; that is, both high and low ability individuals attend college. If some individual were to choose not to attend college, the employer would believe that he or she must be low ability, and would o §er a wage of 0.

  6. (f) If the employer observes that an individual attended college, what is his belief about the individ- ualiÌs ability? What wage will he o §er to college graduates? (Hint: The employer expects that all individuals attend college. This means that attending college conveys no information about the individualiÌs true ability).

  7. (g) Given the wages paid to college graduates (and the wage that would be paid to non-grads) would the high-ability individual choose to attend college? For which values of a would the low ability individual choose to attend college?

  8. (h) In a pooling equilibrium, both high and low ability individuals attend college. For which values of a is this expectation consistent with the individualsiÌstrategies?

    Finally, consider a sem-separating equilibrium in which high-ability individuals attend college (for sure), but low ability students attend college with probability 0 < s < 1:

  9. (i) If the employer sees that an individual attends college what is his belief that the individual is high-ability? What is the wage to college graduates? (Hint: Remember, all high ability individuals attend, but low ability individuals attend with probability s. Divide the probability of an individual being high ability and attending college by the overall probability of an individual attending college).

  1. (j) If the employer sees that an individual did not attend college, what are his beliefs about the individualiÌs ability? (Hint: all high ability individuals attend college)

  2. (k) The low-ability individual is willing to randomize between attending college and not attending college. Use this to Önd the probability that the low-ability individual attends in equilibrium.

    Bonus: Comment on the purpose of college illustrated in this example. How is this purpose a §ected as college becomes easier for the low-ability type (i.e. as a increases)?

Answer: Step-by-step explanation: (a) If the employer observes that an individ...
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The State and Economics

Political economy: a more ‘honest’ name?

In the old days, no country had a Ministry of Defence. They all had a Ministry of War because, well, war is what it really does. Patents used to be called patent monopolies, as they were (and still are) artificially created monopolies, even though they may be socially useful. So there you have it. Sometimes, an old, forgotten name conveys the essence of the thing it is describing much better than the modern one does.

The same goes for the old name of economics – political economy, or the study of political management of the economy. In this day and age, when economics has become the ‘science of everything’, one can easily get the impression that government economic policy is really not particularly central to economics. However, much of economics is still about actions by the state, or the government – or recommendations against them.* 1 And indeed even those economists who try to sell economics as a science of everything by showing that ‘economic’ (rational) decision is everywhere are – at least unwittingly – contributing to the debate on the role of the state in the economy. When they show that people behave rationally even in the most unlikely areas of life – family life, sumo wrestling and what not – they are saying that, in plain terms, people know what is good for them and how to achieve it. The implication is that they should be left alone: no paternalistic government telling people what to do, believing that it knows what is good for them.

Of course, no serious economic theory says that the government should be abolished altogether. But there is a huge spectrum of opinion on the appropriate role of the state. At one end of the spectrum, we have the free-market view, which wants no more than the minimal state that provides military defence, protection of property rights and infrastructure (like roads and ports). At the other end, we have the Marxist view, which believes that markets should be marginalized – or even abolished altogether – and the whole economy coordinated through central planning by the state.

Once we depart from these two extreme views, the possible permutations of exactly what the government should or should not do become mindbogglingly numerous. Indeed, even those who want the ‘extreme’ solutions of the minimal state or central planning cannot quite agree amongst themselves on, respectively, what exactly the minimal state should do or to what degree of detail the economy should be planned.

The Morality of State Intervention

The state cannot be above individuals: the contractarian view

A perennial theme in the debate on the role of the state is a moral one – whether the state has the right to tell individuals what to do.

Most economists these days believe in individualism, namely, the view that there can be no higher authority than individuals. In its purest form, this philosophical stance leads to the view that the government is a product of a social contract between sovereign individuals and thus cannot be above individuals. In this view, known as contractarianism, a state action can be justified only when every individual gives his/ her consent.

‘Nasty, brutish, and short’: Thomas Hobbes and the original contractarian argument

There are different theories of social contract, but the currently most influential version is based on the ideas of the seventeenth-century English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes. In his famous 1651 book, Leviathan, named after the biblical sea monster, Hobbes starts by presuming a ‘state of nature’, in which free individuals existed without a government. In that world, Hobbes argued, individuals were engaged in what he called the ‘war of all against all’, and as a result their lives were ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’. In order to overcome this state of affairs, individuals voluntarily agreed to accept certain restrictions on their freedom imposed by a government so that they could have social peace.

Modern contractarian, or libertarian, argument on the role of the state

Hobbes himself actually used this theory to justify absolute monarchy. He advocated a total submission by individuals to the monarch’s authority, which is justified by its ability to elevate humanity out of its state of nature. However, the philosopher Robert Nozick, the economist James Buchanan, the winner of the 1986 Nobel Prize in Economics, and other modern advocates of contractarianism have developed Hobbes’s ideas in a different direction and advanced a political philosophy to justify the minimal state. In this pro-free-market version of contractarianism, more commonly known as libertarianism in the US, Leviathan came to depict the state as a potential monster that needs to be restrained (which is not what Hobbes intended). This view is best summed up in Ronald Reagan’s comment that ‘Government exists to protect us from each other. Where government has gone beyond its limits is in deciding to protect us from ourselves.’

According to the libertarians, any state intervention without the unanimous consent of all individuals in society is illegitimate. Therefore, the only justified actions of the government are things like provision of law and order (especially the protection of property rights), national defense and supply of infrastructure. These are services that are absolutely necessary for a functioning market economy to exist and thus whose provision by the state would be accepted by all individuals (were they to be asked). Anything beyond these minimal functions – whether it is minimum wage legislation, the welfare state or tariff protection – is seen as violating the sovereignty of individuals and thus the first step on ‘the road to serfdom’, as the title of Friedrich von Hayek’s famous 1944 book goes.

The modern contractarian, or libertarian, philosophical position has to be taken seriously. Once you begin to believe that the state is ‘above’ its citizens, it becomes very easy to demand sacrifices by a minority for the ‘greater good’, arbitrarily defined by those who control the state. Indeed, the world has suffered from too many political rulers believing that they know what is good for everyone else – from Pol Pot and Stalin on the left to Pinochet and Hitler on the right – and imposing their views, often through violent means. Asserting that the state is not above its citizens is a very important defence of individuals against the abuse of power by the state, or, rather, by those who control the state machinery.

The contractarian argument exaggerates individuals’ independence from society

Nevertheless, the contractarian position also has some important limitations. To begin with, it is based on a fictional, rather than real, history, as Buchanan and Nozick themselves readily admit. Human beings have never existed as free-contracting individuals in a ‘state of nature’ but have always lived as members of some society (for further discussions, see the section on the ‘embedded individual’ in Chapter 5). The very idea of the free- standing individual is a product of capitalism, which emerged well after the state.

Thus seen, by basing their theory on a fictitious history, the contractarians have vastly exaggerated individuals’ independence from society and underestimated the legitimacy of collective entities, especially (but not exclusively) the state.

Market Failures Markets may fail to produce socially optimal outcomes – this is known as market failure. I have already discussed the basic idea behind the concept in Chapter 4, using the case of externality. But here we investigate it in greater depth, as it gives us very important analytical tools to explore different roles that the state may play.

Some goods have to be collectively provided: public goods

Many goods (and services) are private goods in the sense that, once I pay for it – say, an apple or a holiday – only I can consume it. However, there are some goods whose use by non-payers cannot be prevented, once they are supplied. Such goods (and services) are known as public goods. The existence of public goods is arguably the most frequently cited type of market failure, even more than externality, the original market failure.

Classic examples of public goods include roads, bridges, lighthouses, flood defence systems and other infrastructure. If you can drive on a road without having paid for its construction, why should you, as a car owner, volunteer to pay up when someone is trying to raise money to build one? A lighthouse cannot selectively block its light from your ship because you have not contributed to its construction and upkeep, so you, as a ship owner, can let others pay for it and still enjoy its service.

In other words, if you can free-ride on other people to pay for a public good, you don’t have the incentive to voluntarily pay for it. But if everyone thinks the same way, no one will pay for it, which means that the good is not going to be provided at all. At most, it may be provided in sub-optimal quantities by large consumers who would rather let some people free-ride on them than not have the good at all. A big company dominating an area may build a road and let other people use it for free, as the cost of not having a good road may be too high for its business. Even in this case, however, the road capacity will be determined by the company’s needs, rather than by those of the society, and thus sub- optimal from the social point of view.

It is therefore widely accepted that public goods can be supplied in optimal quantities only if the government taxes all potential users (which often means all citizens and residents) and uses the proceeds either to provide them itself or to pay some supplier to provide them.

Please summarize and analyze (minimum 500 words.)

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