GOV 10 Chapter Hobbes: Gov 10, Week Three (Hobbes)
20 Jun 2018
School
Department
Course
Professor
Book$I,$Chapters$I-3
Sense,$imagination,$train$of$thought
○
Knowledge$of$the$world$originates$from$"external$bodies"$pressing$against$our$sensory$apparatus
○
Mechanics$of$human$mind
•
The$action$of$all$external$ bodies$colliding$ with$our$sensitive$organs
○
Sense
•
Instead$says$that$matter$cannot$move
○
Continuance$of$motion$is$responsible$for$the$transformation$of$sense$into$thoughts
§
"when$a$thing$is$in$motion,$it$will$eternally$be$in$motion"
○
Hobbes$argues$the$philosophy$of$vitalism$(motion$is$self-motivated)
•
Memory$of$things$sensed$from$the$outside$world$=$experience
®
Sensation$of$internal$movements$of$the$body$is$called$"dream"$when$asleep$and$"vision"$when$awake
®
Such$imagination$over$time$is$known$as$"memory"
□
The$persistence$of$a$vision$after$the$eyes$have$been$closed
§
The$duration$of$sensory$motion
○
Decaying+Sense
•
"unguided"$train:$mental$discourse$wanders$in$no$particular$direction$as$in$dreams
○
Regulated"$train:$the$thinker$directs$mental$discourse$in$a$specific$direction
○
Understanding
•
Chapters$4-5
Words$register$a$train$of$thought;$can$be$remembered$without$having$to$reconstruct$train$of$thought
§
Mental$discourse$can$be$communicated$to$others
§
Invented$for$putting$mental$discourse$into$verbal$discourse
○
Record$knowledge$gained$(Acquisition$of$Arts)
§
Communicate$knowledge$to$others$(Counseling$or$teaching)
§
Communicate$intentions$or$desires
§
Entertain$ourselves
§
Four$uses$of$speech:
○
Letting$the$meaning$of$words$shift
§
Using$certain$words$to$mean$other$words$in$order$to$deceive
§
Lies
§
Language$employed$to$injure$other$people
§
Four$abuses$of$speech:
○
To$speak$philosophically,$one$must$use$precise$and$proper$meanings$of$names
○
Society$determines$First$Principals
§
Once$philosophical$definitions$(first$principals)$are$established,$true$conclusions$can$be$made$by$building$logically$ upon$proper$claims
○
Speech:$"consisting$of$names$or$appellations,$and$their$connexion"
•
Geometric$arguments$are$indisputable
§
Geometry$is$a$good$model$for$philosophical$language,$because$geometry$operates$in$terms$that$everyone$has$agreed$to$recognize
○
Geometry•
Observation$of$nature$and$sensation$of$the$material$world$is$affected$by$the$individual$character$of$the$observer
○
As$long$as$there$persist$differences$in$experience,$which$equal$differences$in$meaning,$true$certainty$cannot$be$achieved
○
Always$filtered$through$a$screen$of$subjectivity
§
Nature$is$what$we$perceive$of$it
§
Hobbes+calls+for+a+governing+body,+unanimously+recognized,+appointed+to+settle+the+definitions+of+words+and+first+principles
§
Objective+nature+is+inaccessible+to+us
○
A$judge$that$will$settle$definitions$to$which$everyone$will$agree$upon$will$become$the$needed$foundation$of$all$knowledge
○
Experience•
Reason$is$nothing$but$reckoning$(adding$and$subtracting)
○
There$can$be$no$certainty$of$the$last$conclusion$without$a$certainty$of$all$those$affirmation$and$negations$on$which$it$was$grounded
○
Science$(knowledge$or$consequence)$=$philosophy
○
Also$there$will$be$no$factions$or$civil$wars
§
Hobbes$approach$to$science$is$necessary$for$the$preservation$of$peace
§
With$Hobbes$vision$of$science,$there$is$no$divisiveness$within$knowledge$because$geometric$knowledge$is$indisputable
○
Process$of$Science$=$Reason•
Chapters$6-7
Flow$of$blood,$breathing,$digestion,$excretion
◊
Continue$throughout$life
®
Innate$and$automatic$to$all$animals□
Vital
§
Walking,$speaking,$moving$limbs
®
Active$and$directed□
Voluntary
§
Two$types$of$motion$peculiar$in$animals
○
As$well$as$good$and$evil
}
Decision$to$act$=$deliberate
–
Decision$not$to$act$=$will
–
If$a$person$attempts$to$judge$something$as$good$or$bad,$they$are$attempting$to$ascertain$whether$they$have$an$
appetite$or$aversion$to$that$thing
}
All$the$"passions"$known$to$man$arise$from$appetites$and$aversions
◊
Appetites$and$aversions$=$the$product$of$transferred$motion
®
Endeavour:$towards$something$=$appetite$or$desire,$from$something$=$aversion□
Casual$motions$=$thoughts$and$imaginations
§
Deliberation$is$purely$subjective$to$the$person$deliberating,$and$therefore$is$not$a$science
§
Motions$eventually$progress$into$directed$actions
○
Motion$as$it$is$manifested$in$animals•
If$the$foundation$of$discourse$is$not$a$shared$set$of$definitions,$then$the$conclusions$derived$from$such$discourses$are$called$"opinion"
○
If$the$foundations$of$discourse$are$even$narrower,$it$is$called$"belief"$or$"faith"
○
Hobbes$shows$that$all$knowledge$(including$scientific)$is$conditional$
○
Science$=$"knowledge$of$the$consequence$of$words"•
Continuous$war$and$violence,$of$death$and$fear
○
This$is$known$as$the$"state$of$nature"
○
Hobbes$claims$that$this$"state$of$nature"$never$existed$in$actual$history
○
Evidence$of$our$natural$condition$can$be$seen$in$our$mistrust$of$others,$criminal$behavior,$and$in$domination$of$weak$countries$by$strong$countries
○
Makes$natural$men$want$to$escape$the$state$of$nature
®
Fear□
Provides$natural$laws,$which$constitute$the$foundation$for$peace
®
Reason□
Two$natural$passions$enable$people$to$escape$the$state$of$nature
§
In$the$"state$of$nature"$no$security$is$possible$and$life$is$full$of$horror
○
Natural$condition$of$mankind$before$society,$government,$and$law:•
Chapter$13
Such$laws$affirm$human$self-preservation$and$condemns$acts$like$destruction$to$human$life
○
Unlike$civil$laws$which$must$be$written$down,$law$of$nature$is$natural$and$inherently$known$by$all
○
Hobbes$concludes$that$natural$man$must$seek$peace in$order$to$preserve$life
§
Natural$law$demands$that$we$seek$peace$because$to$seek$peace$is$to$fulfill$our$natural$right$to$defend$ourselves
§
Law$Number$One
○
SELF$DEFENSE□
We$must$mutually$divest$ourselves$of$certain$rights$in$order$to$escape$the$state$of$natural$war
§
The$right$of$self-preservation$is$the$one$right$that$cannot$be$forfeited
®
People$will$give$up$their$rights$only$when$others$are$willing$to$do$the$same□
This$mutual$transferring$of$rights$is$called$a$contract$and$it$is$the$basis$of$the$notion$of$moral$obligation
§
Law$Number$Two
○
This$law$of$nature$is$the$foundation$for$the$concept$of$"justice"□
Human$desire$for$power$incentivizes$breaking$a$contract□
It$is$not$enough$simply$to$make$contracts,$but$we$must$keep$these$contracts$that$we$make
§
Law$Number$Three
○
Show$gratitude$toward$those$who$maintain$the$contract$so$that$no$one$will$regret$having$complied$with$the$contract
§
Law$Number$Four
○
We$must$be$accommodating$to$others$for$the$purpose$of$protecting$the$contract$and$not$quarrel$over$the$minor$issues$lest$the$contract$
collapse
§
Law$Number$Five
○
We$must$pardon$those$who$have$committed$offenses$in$the$past
§
Law$Number$Six
○
Punishment$should$be$used$only$to$correct$the$offender$and$to$protect$the$contract,$not$for$gratuitous$retribution$(eye$for$an$eye)
§
Law$Number$Seven
○
People$must$avoid$making$signs$of$hatred$or$contempt$towards$others
§
Law$Number$Eight
○
Pride$should$be$avoided$
§
Law$Number$Nine
○
One$should$retain$only$those$rights$that$one$would$recognize$in$others
§
Law$Number$Ten
○
Equality$and$impartiality$in$judgment$should$be$maintained$at$all$times
§
Law$Number$Eleven
○
Resources$that$cannot$be$divided$such$as$rivers,$must$be$shared
§
Law$Number$Twelve
○
Resources$that$cannot$be$divided$nor$shared$in$common$should$be$assigned$by$lottery
§
Law$Number$Thirteen
○
Lots$are$of$two$sorts:$natural$or$arbitrary
§
Law$Number$Fourteen
○
Law$Number$Fifteen
○
Individuals$who$work$to$preserve$the$peace$should$be$left$in$peace
§
Law$Number$Sixteen
○
Disputes$must$be$settled$by$an$arbitrator
§
Law$Number$Seventeen
○
No$one$with$self-interest$may$be$an$arbitrator
§
Law$Number$Eighteen
○
Witnesses$and$facts$must$be$brought$to$bear$in$arbitration,$lest$decisions$be$made$by$force,$contrary$to$the$law$of$nature
§
Law$Number$Nineteen
○
A$law$of$nature$is$valid$if$it$conforms$to$this$general$rule$"do$not$that$to$another,$which$thou$wouldst$not$have$done$to$thy self"
○
19$laws$are$purely$moral$philosophy
○
"Law$of$Nature"$=$a$general$rule$that$is$discovered$through$reason•
Natural$persons
®
One$whose$words$are$his$or$her$own$=$author□
Natural
§
One$whose$words$are$those$of$someone$else□
Artificial
§
There$are$two$types$of$people
○
Law•
Chapters$14-16
Operate$through$fear,$the$threat$of$punishment$reinforces$the$mandates$of$the$laws$of$nature□
Sovereign$is$the$ruling$force$behind$the$contract□
Artificial$person$=$Leviathan□
Hobbes$concludes$that$there$must$be$some$common$power$to$force$people$to$uphold$the$contract
§
The$natural$human$hunger$for$power$threatens$the$safety$of$the$contract
○
Laws$of$nature$require$that$human$beings$seek$peace$and$maintain$the$establishment$of$contracts•
To$escape$the$state$of$nature$and$to$provide$peace$and$common$defense$of$the$people
○
Only$right$retained$is$self-preservation
®
Sovereign$has$the$power$to$do$whatever$is$necessary$to$protect$the$commonwealth□
Sovereign$can$be$individual$or$group
§
Sovereign$is$responsible$for$ensuring$defense
○
Why$establish$a$commonwealth?•
Acquisition$(force)
○
Both$of$their$functions$are$to$protect$society$and$secure$peace
§
12+rights+of+a+sovereign
§
Institution$(agreement)
○
Sovereign$is$both$the$foundation$of$all$true$knowledge$and$the$embodied$power$enforcing$civil$peace
○
How$to$establish$a$commonwealth?•
Monarchy$(where$power$resides$in$one$individual)
○
Aristocracy$(where$power$resides$in$all$people$willing$to$assemble$for$the$sake$of$government)
○
All$other$variations$of$government$can$be$reduced$to$these$three$categories
§
A$monarch$will$receive$better$counsel$than$aristocratic$or$democratic$governors$because$he$can$select$experts$and$obtain$their$
advice$in$private
®
A$monarch's$policies$will$be$more$consistent$because$he$is$of$one$mind
®
Civil$war$is$less$likely$in$a$monarchy$because$the$monarch$cannot$disagree$with$himself
®
Succession$of$sovereign$power$is$more$stable$in$a$monarchy$because$the$sovereign$can$choose$his$heir$and$the$method$of$
succession
®
A$monarch's$interest$are$the$same$as$the$people's$(his$political$body$is$the$same$as$his$public$body)□
In$sovereign$groups,$the$rulers$do$not$share$a$body$with$the$public□
Hobbes$argues$that$monarchy+is+best
§
Democracy$(where$power$resides$in$all$ people$willing$to$assemble$for$the$sake$of$government)
○
Types$of$sovereign$authority:•
Chapters$17-19
Chapters$20-21
Sovereign$who$comes$to$power$by$institution$gains$the$support$of$the$people$because$the$people$fear$each$other
○
A$sovereign$who$comes$to$power$by$acquisition$(force)$gains$the$people's$support$because$the$people$fear$the$sovereign$himself
○
Sovereignty$established$through$force$incorporates$all$the$same$rights$and$requirements$of$contract•
Familial$power$in$the$state$of$nature$is$naturally$maternal
○
Sovereign$power$does$not$naturally$reside$in$the$father
§
Hobbes$suggests$that$paternal$authority$is$an$accident$of$history
§
Just$as$a$natural$man$escapes$the$state$of$nature$by$contracting$with$a$sovereign,$sacrificing$personal$rights$in$exchange$for$security$and$peace,$so$too$
do$two$parents$in$the$state$of$nature$contract$with$each$other$to$give$the$father$power$of$the$family,$also$for$the$sake$of$security$and$peace
○
Contractual$sovereignty$•
Acquired$sovereign$power
○
Relation$between$master$and$servant
○
Despotical•
Therefore,$the$subject$is$responsible$for$all$hindrances$to$his$actions$and$therefore$cannot$complain
◊
Subjects$write$the$social$contract$and$are$the$authors$of$the$sovereign's$power
®
Although$the$contract$and$civil$laws$mandated$by$the$sovereign$are$"artificial$chains,"$absolute$freedom$and$liberty$still$exist$because$the$
subjects$themselves$created$the$chains
□
Only$chains$or$imprisonment$can$stop$one$from$acting$
§
Liberty$means$the$ability$to$act$according$to$one's$will$without$being$physically$hindered$from$performing$that$act
○
In$the$state$of$nature$liberty$did$not$exist$-- actions$were$hindered$by$fear$of$death
○
In$the$Leviathan,$fear$and$power$are$still$present,$but$because$the$subject$has$consented$to$give$them$the$to$the$sovereign$to$use$as$tools,$the$subject$
has$attained$absolute$liberty
○
Hobbes$concludes$that$freedom$can$only$truly$exist$under$a$sovereign$power$authorized$by$its$subject
○
Nature$of$Liberty•
Chapters$24-26,$29
Money$is$the$blood$that$circulates$throughout$the$body
○
The$Leviathan$reproduces$itself$by$bearing$children:$"Plantations"$or$"Colonies"
○
Commodities$and$good$produced$within$the$commonwealth$or$by$other$commonwealths$are$the$"nutrition"$for$the$Leviathan's$body•
The$motivations$and$goals$of$a$counselor$must$be$the$same$as$those$of$the$sovereign$or$discord$will$ensue
○
Best$type$of$government:$those$administered$by$sovereigns$privy$to$the$advice$of$many$counselors
○
Second$best$type$of$government:$one$administered$according$to$the$judgements$of$the$sovereign$alone
○
Worst$kind$of$government:$$those$administered$with$the$help$of$counselors$who$must$arrive$with$difficulty,$at$a$plurality$of$consenting$opinions$
before$offering$their$advice$to$the$sovereign
○
Consensus+is+only+possible+when+one+man+having+heard+a+variety+of+opinions,+is+responsible+for+making+resolution
○
Functionality$of$the$Leviathan$•
The$sovereign$alone$is$the$final$judge$of$laws$
§
Laws$must$be$made$known$in$order$to$be$laws;$if$they$aren't$known,$they$cannot$be$justly$enforced
§
Those$rules$commanded$by$the$sovereign$through$word,$writing,$or$other$sign$of$his$will
○
A$judge$must$be$impartial,$decide$equitably,$and$reach$his$conclusions$through$proper$exercise$of$reason
§
All$laws$require$judgement$and$interpretation
○
Civil$Laws:•
Defectively$conceived$commonwealth$=$a$birth$defect
○
Commonwealth$in$disarray$(unhealthy$Leviathan)•
Week$Three$(Hobbes)
Wednesday,$ February$10,$2016
6:17$PM
Book$I,$Chapters$I-3
Sense,$imagination,$train$of$thought
○
Knowledge$of$the$world$originates$from$"external$bodies"$pressing$against$our$sensory$apparatus
○
Mechanics$of$human$mind•
The$action$of$all$external$ bodies$colliding$ with$our$sensitive$organs
○
Sense•
Instead$says$that$matter$cannot$move
○
Continuance$of$motion$is$responsible$for$the$transformation$of$sense$into$thoughts
§
"when$a$thing$is$in$motion,$it$will$eternally$be$in$motion"
○
Hobbes$argues$the$philosophy$of$vitalism$(motion$is$self-motivated)•
Memory$of$things$sensed$from$the$outside$world$=$experience
®
Sensation$of$internal$movements$of$the$body$is$called$"dream"$when$asleep$and$"vision"$when$awake
®
Such$imagination$over$time$is$known$as$"memory"□
The$persistence$of$a$vision$after$the$eyes$have$been$closed
§
The$duration$of$sensory$motion
○
Decaying+Sense•
"unguided"$train:$mental$discourse$wanders$in$no$particular$direction$as$in$dreams
○
Regulated"$train:$the$thinker$directs$mental$discourse$in$a$specific$direction
○
Understanding•
Chapters$4-5
Words$register$a$train$of$thought;$can$be$remembered$without$having$to$reconstruct$train$of$thought
§
Mental$discourse$can$be$communicated$to$others
§
Invented$for$putting$mental$discourse$into$verbal$discourse
○
Record$knowledge$gained$(Acquisition$of$Arts)
§
Communicate$knowledge$to$others$(Counseling$or$teaching)
§
Communicate$intentions$or$desires
§
Entertain$ourselves
§
Four$uses$of$speech:
○
Letting$the$meaning$of$words$shift
§
Using$certain$words$to$mean$other$words$in$order$to$deceive
§
Lies
§
Language$employed$to$injure$other$people
§
Four$abuses$of$speech:
○
To$speak$philosophically,$one$must$use$precise$and$proper$meanings$of$names
○
Society$determines$First$Principals
§
Once$philosophical$definitions$(first$principals)$are$established,$true$conclusions$can$be$made$by$building$logically$ upon$proper$claims
○
Speech:$"consisting$of$names$or$appellations,$and$their$connexion"•
Geometric$arguments$are$indisputable
§
Geometry$is$a$good$model$for$philosophical$language,$because$geometry$operates$in$terms$that$everyone$has$agreed$to$recognize
○
Geometry•
Observation$of$nature$and$sensation$of$the$material$world$is$affected$by$the$individual$character$of$the$observer
○
As$long$as$there$persist$differences$in$experience,$which$equal$differences$in$meaning,$true$certainty$cannot$be$achieved
○
Always$filtered$through$a$screen$of$subjectivity
§
Nature$is$what$we$perceive$of$it
§
Hobbes+calls+for+a+governing+body,+unanimously+recognized,+appointed+to+settle+the+definitions+of+words+and+first+principles
§
Objective+nature+is+inaccessible+to+us
○
A$judge$that$will$settle$definitions$to$which$everyone$will$agree$upon$will$become$the$needed$foundation$of$all$knowledge
○
Experience•
Reason$is$nothing$but$reckoning$(adding$and$subtracting)
○
There$can$be$no$certainty$of$the$last$conclusion$without$a$certainty$of$all$those$affirmation$and$negations$on$which$it$was$grounded
○
Science$(knowledge$or$consequence)$=$philosophy
○
Also$there$will$be$no$factions$or$civil$wars
§
Hobbes$approach$to$science$is$necessary$for$the$preservation$of$peace
§
With$Hobbes$vision$of$science,$there$is$no$divisiveness$within$knowledge$because$geometric$knowledge$is$indisputable
○
Process$of$Science$=$Reason•
Chapters$6-7
Flow$of$blood,$breathing,$digestion,$excretion
◊
Continue$throughout$life
®
Innate$and$automatic$to$all$animals□
Vital
§
Walking,$speaking,$moving$limbs
®
Active$and$directed□
Voluntary
§
Two$types$of$motion$peculiar$in$animals
○
As$well$as$good$and$evil
}
Decision$to$act$=$deliberate
–
Decision$not$to$act$=$will
–
If$a$person$attempts$to$judge$something$as$good$or$bad,$they$are$attempting$to$ascertain$whether$they$have$an$
appetite$or$aversion$to$that$thing
}
All$the$"passions"$known$to$man$arise$from$appetites$and$aversions
◊
Appetites$and$aversions$=$the$product$of$transferred$motion
®
Endeavour:$towards$something$=$appetite$or$desire,$from$something$=$aversion□
Casual$motions$=$thoughts$and$imaginations
§
Deliberation$is$purely$subjective$to$the$person$deliberating,$and$therefore$is$not$a$science
§
Motions$eventually$progress$into$directed$actions
○
Motion$as$it$is$manifested$in$animals•
If$the$foundation$of$discourse$is$not$a$shared$set$of$definitions,$then$the$conclusions$derived$from$such$discourses$are$called$"opinion"
○
If$the$foundations$of$discourse$are$even$narrower,$it$is$called$"belief"$or$"faith"
○
Hobbes$shows$that$all$knowledge$(including$scientific)$is$conditional$
○
Science$=$"knowledge$of$the$consequence$of$words"•
Continuous$war$and$violence,$of$death$and$fear
○
This$is$known$as$the$"state$of$nature"
○
Hobbes$claims$that$this$"state$of$nature"$never$existed$in$actual$history
○
Evidence$of$our$natural$condition$can$be$seen$in$our$mistrust$of$others,$criminal$behavior,$and$in$domination$of$weak$countries$by$strong$countries
○
Makes$natural$men$want$to$escape$the$state$of$nature
®
Fear□
Provides$natural$laws,$which$constitute$the$foundation$for$peace
®
Reason□
Two$natural$passions$enable$people$to$escape$the$state$of$nature
§
In$the$"state$of$nature"$no$security$is$possible$and$life$is$full$of$horror
○
Natural$condition$of$mankind$before$society,$government,$and$law:•
Chapter$13
Such$laws$affirm$human$self-preservation$and$condemns$acts$like$destruction$to$human$life
○
Unlike$civil$laws$which$must$be$written$down,$law$of$nature$is$natural$and$inherently$known$by$all
○
Hobbes$concludes$that$natural$man$must$seek$peace in$order$to$preserve$life
§
Natural$law$demands$that$we$seek$peace$because$to$seek$peace$is$to$fulfill$our$natural$right$to$defend$ourselves
§
Law$Number$One
○
SELF$DEFENSE□
We$must$mutually$divest$ourselves$of$certain$rights$in$order$to$escape$the$state$of$natural$war
§
The$right$of$self-preservation$is$the$one$right$that$cannot$be$forfeited
®
People$will$give$up$their$rights$only$when$others$are$willing$to$do$the$same□
This$mutual$transferring$of$rights$is$called$a$contract$and$it$is$the$basis$of$the$notion$of$moral$obligation
§
Law$Number$Two
○
This$law$of$nature$is$the$foundation$for$the$concept$of$"justice"□
Human$desire$for$power$incentivizes$breaking$a$contract□
It$is$not$enough$simply$to$make$contracts,$but$we$must$keep$these$contracts$that$we$make
§
Law$Number$Three
○
Show$gratitude$toward$those$who$maintain$the$contract$so$that$no$one$will$regret$having$complied$with$the$contract
§
Law$Number$Four
○
We$must$be$accommodating$to$others$for$the$purpose$of$protecting$the$contract$and$not$quarrel$over$the$minor$issues$lest$the$contract$
collapse
§
Law$Number$Five
○
We$must$pardon$those$who$have$committed$offenses$in$the$past
§
Law$Number$Six
○
Punishment$should$be$used$only$to$correct$the$offender$and$to$protect$the$contract,$not$for$gratuitous$retribution$(eye$for$an$eye)
§
Law$Number$Seven
○
People$must$avoid$making$signs$of$hatred$or$contempt$towards$others
§
Law$Number$Eight
○
Pride$should$be$avoided$
§
Law$Number$Nine
○
One$should$retain$only$those$rights$that$one$would$recognize$in$others
§
Law$Number$Ten
○
Equality$and$impartiality$in$judgment$should$be$maintained$at$all$times
§
Law$Number$Eleven
○
Resources$that$cannot$be$divided$such$as$rivers,$must$be$shared
§
Law$Number$Twelve
○
Resources$that$cannot$be$divided$nor$shared$in$common$should$be$assigned$by$lottery
§
Law$Number$Thirteen
○
Lots$are$of$two$sorts:$natural$or$arbitrary
§
Law$Number$Fourteen
○
Law$Number$Fifteen
○
Individuals$who$work$to$preserve$the$peace$should$be$left$in$peace
§
Law$Number$Sixteen
○
Disputes$must$be$settled$by$an$arbitrator
§
Law$Number$Seventeen
○
No$one$with$self-interest$may$be$an$arbitrator
§
Law$Number$Eighteen
○
Witnesses$and$facts$must$be$brought$to$bear$in$arbitration,$lest$decisions$be$made$by$force,$contrary$to$the$law$of$nature
§
Law$Number$Nineteen
○
A$law$of$nature$is$valid$if$it$conforms$to$this$general$rule$"do$not$that$to$another,$which$thou$wouldst$not$have$done$to$thy self"
○
19$laws$are$purely$moral$philosophy
○
"Law$of$Nature"$=$a$general$rule$that$is$discovered$through$reason•
Natural$persons
®
One$whose$words$are$his$or$her$own$=$author□
Natural
§
One$whose$words$are$those$of$someone$else□
Artificial
§
There$are$two$types$of$people
○
Law•
Chapters$14-16
Operate$through$fear,$the$threat$of$punishment$reinforces$the$mandates$of$the$laws$of$nature□
Sovereign$is$the$ruling$force$behind$the$contract□
Artificial$person$=$Leviathan□
Hobbes$concludes$that$there$must$be$some$common$power$to$force$people$to$uphold$the$contract
§
The$natural$human$hunger$for$power$threatens$the$safety$of$the$contract
○
Laws$of$nature$require$that$human$beings$seek$peace$and$maintain$the$establishment$of$contracts•
To$escape$the$state$of$nature$and$to$provide$peace$and$common$defense$of$the$people
○
Only$right$retained$is$self-preservation
®
Sovereign$has$the$power$to$do$whatever$is$necessary$to$protect$the$commonwealth□
Sovereign$can$be$individual$or$group
§
Sovereign$is$responsible$for$ensuring$defense
○
Why$establish$a$commonwealth?•
Acquisition$(force)
○
Both$of$their$functions$are$to$protect$society$and$secure$peace
§
12+rights+of+a+sovereign
§
Institution$(agreement)
○
Sovereign$is$both$the$foundation$of$all$true$knowledge$and$the$embodied$power$enforcing$civil$peace
○
How$to$establish$a$commonwealth?•
Monarchy$(where$power$resides$in$one$individual)
○
Aristocracy$(where$power$resides$in$all$people$willing$to$assemble$for$the$sake$of$government)
○
All$other$variations$of$government$can$be$reduced$to$these$three$categories
§
A$monarch$will$receive$better$counsel$than$aristocratic$or$democratic$governors$because$he$can$select$experts$and$obtain$their$
advice$in$private
®
A$monarch's$policies$will$be$more$consistent$because$he$is$of$one$mind
®
Civil$war$is$less$likely$in$a$monarchy$because$the$monarch$cannot$disagree$with$himself
®
Succession$of$sovereign$power$is$more$stable$in$a$monarchy$because$the$sovereign$can$choose$his$heir$and$the$method$of$
succession
®
A$monarch's$interest$are$the$same$as$the$people's$(his$political$body$is$the$same$as$his$public$body)□
In$sovereign$groups,$the$rulers$do$not$share$a$body$with$the$public□
Hobbes$argues$that$monarchy+is+best
§
Democracy$(where$power$resides$in$all$ people$willing$to$assemble$for$the$sake$of$government)
○
Types$of$sovereign$authority:•
Chapters$17-19
Chapters$20-21
Sovereign$who$comes$to$power$by$institution$gains$the$support$of$the$people$because$the$people$fear$each$other
○
A$sovereign$who$comes$to$power$by$acquisition$(force)$gains$the$people's$support$because$the$people$fear$the$sovereign$himself
○
Sovereignty$established$through$force$incorporates$all$the$same$rights$and$requirements$of$contract•
Familial$power$in$the$state$of$nature$is$naturally$maternal
○
Sovereign$power$does$not$naturally$reside$in$the$father
§
Hobbes$suggests$that$paternal$authority$is$an$accident$of$history
§
Just$as$a$natural$man$escapes$the$state$of$nature$by$contracting$with$a$sovereign,$sacrificing$personal$rights$in$exchange$for$security$and$peace,$so$too$
do$two$parents$in$the$state$of$nature$contract$with$each$other$to$give$the$father$power$of$the$family,$also$for$the$sake$of$security$and$peace
○
Contractual$sovereignty$•
Acquired$sovereign$power
○
Relation$between$master$and$servant
○
Despotical•
Therefore,$the$subject$is$responsible$for$all$hindrances$to$his$actions$and$therefore$cannot$complain
◊
Subjects$write$the$social$contract$and$are$the$authors$of$the$sovereign's$power
®
Although$the$contract$and$civil$laws$mandated$by$the$sovereign$are$"artificial$chains,"$absolute$freedom$and$liberty$still$exist$because$the$
subjects$themselves$created$the$chains
□
Only$chains$or$imprisonment$can$stop$one$from$acting$
§
Liberty$means$the$ability$to$act$according$to$one's$will$without$being$physically$hindered$from$performing$that$act
○
In$the$state$of$nature$liberty$did$not$exist$-- actions$were$hindered$by$fear$of$death
○
In$the$Leviathan,$fear$and$power$are$still$present,$but$because$the$subject$has$consented$to$give$them$the$to$the$sovereign$to$use$as$tools,$the$subject$
has$attained$absolute$liberty
○
Hobbes$concludes$that$freedom$can$only$truly$exist$under$a$sovereign$power$authorized$by$its$subject
○
Nature$of$Liberty•
Chapters$24-26,$29
Money$is$the$blood$that$circulates$throughout$the$body
○
The$Leviathan$reproduces$itself$by$bearing$children:$"Plantations"$or$"Colonies"
○
Commodities$and$good$produced$within$the$commonwealth$or$by$other$commonwealths$are$the$"nutrition"$for$the$Leviathan's$body•
The$motivations$and$goals$of$a$counselor$must$be$the$same$as$those$of$the$sovereign$or$discord$will$ensue
○
Best$type$of$government:$those$administered$by$sovereigns$privy$to$the$advice$of$many$counselors
○
Second$best$type$of$government:$one$administered$according$to$the$judgements$of$the$sovereign$alone
○
Worst$kind$of$government:$$those$administered$with$the$help$of$counselors$who$must$arrive$with$difficulty,$at$a$plurality$of$consenting$opinions$
before$offering$their$advice$to$the$sovereign
○
Consensus+is+only+possible+when+one+man+having+heard+a+variety+of+opinions,+is+responsible+for+making+resolution
○
Functionality$of$the$Leviathan$•
The$sovereign$alone$is$the$final$judge$of$laws$
§
Laws$must$be$made$known$in$order$to$be$laws;$if$they$aren't$known,$they$cannot$be$justly$enforced
§
Those$rules$commanded$by$the$sovereign$through$word,$writing,$or$other$sign$of$his$will
○
A$judge$must$be$impartial,$decide$equitably,$and$reach$his$conclusions$through$proper$exercise$of$reason
§
All$laws$require$judgement$and$interpretation
○
Civil$Laws:•
Defectively$conceived$commonwealth$=$a$birth$defect
○
Commonwealth$in$disarray$(unhealthy$Leviathan)•
Week$Three$(Hobbes)
Wednesday,$ February$10,$2016 6:17$PM
Book$I,$Chapters$I-3
Sense,$imagination,$train$of$thought
○
Knowledge$of$the$world$originates$from$"external$bodies"$pressing$against$our$sensory$apparatus
○
Mechanics$of$human$mind•
The$action$of$all$external$ bodies$colliding$ with$our$sensitive$organs
○
Sense•
Instead$says$that$matter$cannot$move
○
Continuance$of$motion$is$responsible$for$the$transformation$of$sense$into$thoughts
§
"when$a$thing$is$in$motion,$it$will$eternally$be$in$motion"
○
Hobbes$argues$the$philosophy$of$vitalism$(motion$is$self-motivated)•
Memory$of$things$sensed$from$the$outside$world$=$experience
®
Sensation$of$internal$movements$of$the$body$is$called$"dream"$when$asleep$and$"vision"$when$awake
®
Such$imagination$over$time$is$known$as$"memory"□
The$persistence$of$a$vision$after$the$eyes$have$been$closed
§
The$duration$of$sensory$motion
○
Decaying+Sense•
"unguided"$train:$mental$discourse$wanders$in$no$particular$direction$as$in$dreams
○
Regulated"$train:$the$thinker$directs$mental$discourse$in$a$specific$direction
○
Understanding•
Chapters$4-5
Words$register$a$train$of$thought;$can$be$remembered$without$having$to$reconstruct$train$of$thought
§
Mental$discourse$can$be$communicated$to$others
§
Invented$for$putting$mental$discourse$into$verbal$discourse
○
Record$knowledge$gained$(Acquisition$of$Arts)
§
Communicate$knowledge$to$others$(Counseling$or$teaching)
§
Communicate$intentions$or$desires
§
Entertain$ourselves
§
Four$uses$of$speech:
○
Letting$the$meaning$of$words$shift
§
Using$certain$words$to$mean$other$words$in$order$to$deceive
§
Lies
§
Language$employed$to$injure$other$people
§
Four$abuses$of$speech:
○
To$speak$philosophically,$one$must$use$precise$and$proper$meanings$of$names
○
Society$determines$First$Principals
§
Once$philosophical$definitions$(first$principals)$are$established,$true$conclusions$can$be$made$by$building$logically$ upon$proper$claims
○
Speech:$"consisting$of$names$or$appellations,$and$their$connexion"•
Geometric$arguments$are$indisputable
§
Geometry$is$a$good$model$for$philosophical$language,$because$geometry$operates$in$terms$that$everyone$has$agreed$to$recognize
○
Geometry
•
Observation$of$nature$and$sensation$of$the$material$world$is$affected$by$the$individual$character$of$the$observer
○
As$long$as$there$persist$differences$in$experience,$which$equal$differences$in$meaning,$true$certainty$cannot$be$achieved
○
Always$filtered$through$a$screen$of$subjectivity
§
Nature$is$what$we$perceive$of$it
§
Hobbes+calls+for+a+governing+body,+unanimously+recognized,+appointed+to+settle+the+definitions+of+words+and+first+principles
§
Objective+nature+is+inaccessible+to+us
○
A$judge$that$will$settle$definitions$to$which$everyone$will$agree$upon$will$become$the$needed$foundation$of$all$knowledge
○
Experience
•
Reason$is$nothing$but$reckoning$(adding$and$subtracting)
○
There$can$be$no$certainty$of$the$last$conclusion$without$a$certainty$of$all$those$affirmation$and$negations$on$which$it$was$grounded
○
Science$(knowledge$or$consequence)$=$philosophy
○
Also$there$will$be$no$factions$or$civil$wars
§
Hobbes$approach$to$science$is$necessary$for$the$preservation$of$peace
§
With$Hobbes$vision$of$science,$there$is$no$divisiveness$within$knowledge$because$geometric$knowledge$is$indisputable
○
Process$of$Science$=$Reason
•
Chapters$6-7
Flow$of$blood,$breathing,$digestion,$excretion
◊
Continue$throughout$life
®
Innate$and$automatic$to$all$animals
□
Vital
§
Walking,$speaking,$moving$limbs
®
Active$and$directed□
Voluntary
§
Two$types$of$motion$peculiar$in$animals
○
As$well$as$good$and$evil
}
Decision$to$act$=$deliberate
–
Decision$not$to$act$=$will
–
If$a$person$attempts$to$judge$something$as$good$or$bad,$they$are$attempting$to$ascertain$whether$they$have$an$
appetite$or$aversion$to$that$thing
}
All$the$"passions"$known$to$man$arise$from$appetites$and$aversions
◊
Appetites$and$aversions$=$the$product$of$transferred$motion
®
Endeavour:$towards$something$=$appetite$or$desire,$from$something$=$aversion□
Casual$motions$=$thoughts$and$imaginations
§
Deliberation$is$purely$subjective$to$the$person$deliberating,$and$therefore$is$not$a$science
§
Motions$eventually$progress$into$directed$actions
○
Motion$as$it$is$manifested$in$animals
•
If$the$foundation$of$discourse$is$not$a$shared$set$of$definitions,$then$the$conclusions$derived$from$such$discourses$are$called$"opinion"
○
If$the$foundations$of$discourse$are$even$narrower,$it$is$called$"belief"$or$"faith"
○
Hobbes$shows$that$all$knowledge$(including$scientific)$is$conditional$
○
Science$=$"knowledge$of$the$consequence$of$words"•
Continuous$war$and$violence,$of$death$and$fear
○
This$is$known$as$the$"state$of$nature"
○
Hobbes$claims$that$this$"state$of$nature"$never$existed$in$actual$history
○
Evidence$of$our$natural$condition$can$be$seen$in$our$mistrust$of$others,$criminal$behavior,$and$in$domination$of$weak$countries$by$strong$countries
○
Makes$natural$men$want$to$escape$the$state$of$nature
®
Fear□
Provides$natural$laws,$which$constitute$the$foundation$for$peace
®
Reason□
Two$natural$passions$enable$people$to$escape$the$state$of$nature
§
In$the$"state$of$nature"$no$security$is$possible$and$life$is$full$of$horror
○
Natural$condition$of$mankind$before$society,$government,$and$law:•
Chapter$13
Such$laws$affirm$human$self-preservation$and$condemns$acts$like$destruction$to$human$life
○
Unlike$civil$laws$which$must$be$written$down,$law$of$nature$is$natural$and$inherently$known$by$all
○
Hobbes$concludes$that$natural$man$must$seek$peace in$order$to$preserve$life
§
Natural$law$demands$that$we$seek$peace$because$to$seek$peace$is$to$fulfill$our$natural$right$to$defend$ourselves
§
Law$Number$One
○
SELF$DEFENSE□
We$must$mutually$divest$ourselves$of$certain$rights$in$order$to$escape$the$state$of$natural$war
§
The$right$of$self-preservation$is$the$one$right$that$cannot$be$forfeited
®
People$will$give$up$their$rights$only$when$others$are$willing$to$do$the$same□
This$mutual$transferring$of$rights$is$called$a$contract$and$it$is$the$basis$of$the$notion$of$moral$obligation
§
Law$Number$Two
○
This$law$of$nature$is$the$foundation$for$the$concept$of$"justice"□
Human$desire$for$power$incentivizes$breaking$a$contract□
It$is$not$enough$simply$to$make$contracts,$but$we$must$keep$these$contracts$that$we$make
§
Law$Number$Three
○
Show$gratitude$toward$those$who$maintain$the$contract$so$that$no$one$will$regret$having$complied$with$the$contract
§
Law$Number$Four
○
We$must$be$accommodating$to$others$for$the$purpose$of$protecting$the$contract$and$not$quarrel$over$the$minor$issues$lest$the$contract$
collapse
§
Law$Number$Five
○
We$must$pardon$those$who$have$committed$offenses$in$the$past
§
Law$Number$Six
○
Punishment$should$be$used$only$to$correct$the$offender$and$to$protect$the$contract,$not$for$gratuitous$retribution$(eye$for$an$eye)
§
Law$Number$Seven
○
People$must$avoid$making$signs$of$hatred$or$contempt$towards$others
§
Law$Number$Eight
○
Pride$should$be$avoided$
§
Law$Number$Nine
○
One$should$retain$only$those$rights$that$one$would$recognize$in$others
§
Law$Number$Ten
○
Equality$and$impartiality$in$judgment$should$be$maintained$at$all$times
§
Law$Number$Eleven
○
Resources$that$cannot$be$divided$such$as$rivers,$must$be$shared
§
Law$Number$Twelve
○
Resources$that$cannot$be$divided$nor$shared$in$common$should$be$assigned$by$lottery
§
Law$Number$Thirteen
○
Lots$are$of$two$sorts:$natural$or$arbitrary
§
Law$Number$Fourteen
○
Law$Number$Fifteen
○
Individuals$who$work$to$preserve$the$peace$should$be$left$in$peace
§
Law$Number$Sixteen
○
Disputes$must$be$settled$by$an$arbitrator
§
Law$Number$Seventeen
○
No$one$with$self-interest$may$be$an$arbitrator
§
Law$Number$Eighteen
○
Witnesses$and$facts$must$be$brought$to$bear$in$arbitration,$lest$decisions$be$made$by$force,$contrary$to$the$law$of$nature
§
Law$Number$Nineteen
○
A$law$of$nature$is$valid$if$it$conforms$to$this$general$rule$"do$not$that$to$another,$which$thou$wouldst$not$have$done$to$thy self"
○
19$laws$are$purely$moral$philosophy
○
"Law$of$Nature"$=$a$general$rule$that$is$discovered$through$reason•
Natural$persons
®
One$whose$words$are$his$or$her$own$=$author□
Natural
§
One$whose$words$are$those$of$someone$else□
Artificial
§
There$are$two$types$of$people
○
Law•
Chapters$14-16
Operate$through$fear,$the$threat$of$punishment$reinforces$the$mandates$of$the$laws$of$nature□
Sovereign$is$the$ruling$force$behind$the$contract□
Artificial$person$=$Leviathan□
Hobbes$concludes$that$there$must$be$some$common$power$to$force$people$to$uphold$the$contract
§
The$natural$human$hunger$for$power$threatens$the$safety$of$the$contract
○
Laws$of$nature$require$that$human$beings$seek$peace$and$maintain$the$establishment$of$contracts•
To$escape$the$state$of$nature$and$to$provide$peace$and$common$defense$of$the$people
○
Only$right$retained$is$self-preservation
®
Sovereign$has$the$power$to$do$whatever$is$necessary$to$protect$the$commonwealth□
Sovereign$can$be$individual$or$group
§
Sovereign$is$responsible$for$ensuring$defense
○
Why$establish$a$commonwealth?•
Acquisition$(force)
○
Both$of$their$functions$are$to$protect$society$and$secure$peace
§
12+rights+of+a+sovereign
§
Institution$(agreement)
○
Sovereign$is$both$the$foundation$of$all$true$knowledge$and$the$embodied$power$enforcing$civil$peace
○
How$to$establish$a$commonwealth?•
Monarchy$(where$power$resides$in$one$individual)
○
Aristocracy$(where$power$resides$in$all$people$willing$to$assemble$for$the$sake$of$government)
○
All$other$variations$of$government$can$be$reduced$to$these$three$categories
§
A$monarch$will$receive$better$counsel$than$aristocratic$or$democratic$governors$because$he$can$select$experts$and$obtain$their$
advice$in$private
®
A$monarch's$policies$will$be$more$consistent$because$he$is$of$one$mind
®
Civil$war$is$less$likely$in$a$monarchy$because$the$monarch$cannot$disagree$with$himself
®
Succession$of$sovereign$power$is$more$stable$in$a$monarchy$because$the$sovereign$can$choose$his$heir$and$the$method$of$
succession
®
A$monarch's$interest$are$the$same$as$the$people's$(his$political$body$is$the$same$as$his$public$body)□
In$sovereign$groups,$the$rulers$do$not$share$a$body$with$the$public□
Hobbes$argues$that$monarchy+is+best
§
Democracy$(where$power$resides$in$all$ people$willing$to$assemble$for$the$sake$of$government)
○
Types$of$sovereign$authority:•
Chapters$17-19
Chapters$20-21
Sovereign$who$comes$to$power$by$institution$gains$the$support$of$the$people$because$the$people$fear$each$other
○
A$sovereign$who$comes$to$power$by$acquisition$(force)$gains$the$people's$support$because$the$people$fear$the$sovereign$himself
○
Sovereignty$established$through$force$incorporates$all$the$same$rights$and$requirements$of$contract•
Familial$power$in$the$state$of$nature$is$naturally$maternal
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Sovereign$power$does$not$naturally$reside$in$the$father
§
Hobbes$suggests$that$paternal$authority$is$an$accident$of$history
§
Just$as$a$natural$man$escapes$the$state$of$nature$by$contracting$with$a$sovereign,$sacrificing$personal$rights$in$exchange$for$security$and$peace,$so$too$
do$two$parents$in$the$state$of$nature$contract$with$each$other$to$give$the$father$power$of$the$family,$also$for$the$sake$of$security$and$peace
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Contractual$sovereignty$•
Acquired$sovereign$power
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Relation$between$master$and$servant
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Despotical•
Therefore,$the$subject$is$responsible$for$all$hindrances$to$his$actions$and$therefore$cannot$complain
◊
Subjects$write$the$social$contract$and$are$the$authors$of$the$sovereign's$power
®
Although$the$contract$and$civil$laws$mandated$by$the$sovereign$are$"artificial$chains,"$absolute$freedom$and$liberty$still$exist$because$the$
subjects$themselves$created$the$chains
□
Only$chains$or$imprisonment$can$stop$one$from$acting$
§
Liberty$means$the$ability$to$act$according$to$one's$will$without$being$physically$hindered$from$performing$that$act
○
In$the$state$of$nature$liberty$did$not$exist$-- actions$were$hindered$by$fear$of$death
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In$the$Leviathan,$fear$and$power$are$still$present,$but$because$the$subject$has$consented$to$give$them$the$to$the$sovereign$to$use$as$tools,$the$subject$
has$attained$absolute$liberty
○
Hobbes$concludes$that$freedom$can$only$truly$exist$under$a$sovereign$power$authorized$by$its$subject
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Nature$of$Liberty•
Chapters$24-26,$29
Money$is$the$blood$that$circulates$throughout$the$body
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The$Leviathan$reproduces$itself$by$bearing$children:$"Plantations"$or$"Colonies"
○
Commodities$and$good$produced$within$the$commonwealth$or$by$other$commonwealths$are$the$"nutrition"$for$the$Leviathan's$body•
The$motivations$and$goals$of$a$counselor$must$be$the$same$as$those$of$the$sovereign$or$discord$will$ensue
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Best$type$of$government:$those$administered$by$sovereigns$privy$to$the$advice$of$many$counselors
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Second$best$type$of$government:$one$administered$according$to$the$judgements$of$the$sovereign$alone
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Worst$kind$of$government:$$those$administered$with$the$help$of$counselors$who$must$arrive$with$difficulty,$at$a$plurality$of$consenting$opinions$
before$offering$their$advice$to$the$sovereign
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Consensus+is+only+possible+when+one+man+having+heard+a+variety+of+opinions,+is+responsible+for+making+resolution
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Functionality$of$the$Leviathan$•
The$sovereign$alone$is$the$final$judge$of$laws$
§
Laws$must$be$made$known$in$order$to$be$laws;$if$they$aren't$known,$they$cannot$be$justly$enforced
§
Those$rules$commanded$by$the$sovereign$through$word,$writing,$or$other$sign$of$his$will
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A$judge$must$be$impartial,$decide$equitably,$and$reach$his$conclusions$through$proper$exercise$of$reason
§
All$laws$require$judgement$and$interpretation
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Civil$Laws:•
Defectively$conceived$commonwealth$=$a$birth$defect
○
Commonwealth$in$disarray$(unhealthy$Leviathan)•
Week$Three$(Hobbes)
Wednesday,$ February$10,$2016 6:17$PM
