PSYC 3800 Chapter Notes - Chapter 7: Direct Instruction
22 Aug 2016
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CHAPTER 7
Understanding Learning
Learning = process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behaviour
is not temporary, nor caused by maturation
different emphasis by psychologists
cognitive psychologists focus on changes in knowledge
behavioural psychologists focus on changes in behaviour
behavioural learning theories = explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable
behaviours
Neuroscience of behavioural learning (e.g. reflex learning, stimulation and association)
Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning
Some definitions
contiguity = association of two events because of repeated pairing
stimulus = event that activates behaviour
response = observable reaction to a stimulus
Classical conditioning = association of automatic responses with new stimuli
neutral stimulus vs. unconditioned stimulus vs. unconditioned response vs. conditioned stimulus vs. conditioned response
Operant Conditioning
Definitions
operants = voluntary behaviours emitted by a person or animal
operant conditioning = learning in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents
antecedents = events preceding an action
consequences = events following an action
Antecedent —> Behaviour —> Consequence
Types of consequences
reinforcement = use of consequences to strengthen behaviour
positive reinforcement — additive (e.g. sticker, certificate, puzzles)
negative reinforcement — subtractive (e.g. no homework, no test)
doesn’t mean you’re making the behaviour better, just stronger
punishment = process that weakens or suppresses behaviour
presentation punishment — additive (e.g. homework, shock, pushup)
removal punishment — subtractive (e.g. lose points, can’t work with friends)
Reinforcement schedules
continuous reinforcement = reinforcement every time there is a correct response (best for creating the association)
intermittent reinforcement = reinforcement every now and then (best for maintaining the behaviour)
interval schedule = based on the amount of time passed between reinforcers
ratio schedule = based on the number of responses
extinction = disappearance of a learned response
Antecedents and behaviour change
effective instruction delivery
concise, clear, and specific instructions
communicate an expected result
statements instead of questions
cueing (“setting up” a desired behaviour)
prompting (reminder following a cue)
need to make sure the environmental stimulus occurs immediately after the cue, before the prompt
gradually fade the prompt ASAP so they don’t become dependent on it
Applied Behaviour Analysis
Applied behaviour analysis = application of behavioural learning principles to understand and change behaviour
aka behaviour modification, but that has negative connotations so they renamed it
three steps
1. clearly specify the behaviour to be changed and note the current level
2. plan a specific intervention using antecedents, consequences, or both
3. keep track of the results, and modify the plan if necessary
Methods for encouraging behaviours
reinforcing with teacher attention
praise good behaviour and ignore misbehaviour
requires constant effort but if disruptive behaviour persists, you need to change
doesn’t work as well if they still get attention from their peers
selecting reinforcers: the Premack Principle
high-frequency behaviour can be an effective reinforcer for a low-frequency behaviour (if you do what I want you to, then you
can do what you want to)
shaping = reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behaviour
aka successive approximations = small components that make up a complex behaviour
task analysis = system for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills
positive practice = practising correct responses immediately after errors
aka positive practice overcorrection
hopefully, the behaviour later becomes automatic
Handling undesirable behaviour
negative reinforcement (taking away things)
also gives them the chance to exercise control
don’t bluff
reprimands — soft, calm, private
response cost (e.g. fines)
social isolation (time-outs)
sitting in an empty room, not like a trip to the principal’s office or the back of the room
cautions about punishment
only teaches them what not to do — doesn’t show them what they should do
Behavioural Approaches to Teaching and Management
Group consequences
e.g. good behaviour game
open discussion about what would make the classroom better, then develop good behaviours and rules
divide the class into teams
may need a ‘no tattling rule'
reinforcement can be based on the behaviour of selected target students
group consequences = rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct
but shouldn’t be based on the actions of one individual
peer pressure as support and encouragement can be positive
Contingency contract and token reinforcement
contingency contract = student-teacher contract specifying requirements to earn rewards or privileges
allow the student to have some say, if the case allows
token reinforcement system = tokens are earned for academic work and positive behaviour, and resulting in rewards
e.g. stones into a jar, play money, points, etc
at first it should be continuous and immediate, then later more intermittent
could also do it where students take the tokens home and parents give rewards
should be used
1. to motivate uninterested students
2. to encourage students who consistently fail
3. deal with an out-of-control class
Severe behaviour problems
study one — clear improvement, easy to implement
short list of established rules taped to the desk
chose a criterion (group score, single student score, etc.)
and if they had less rules broken than the threshold, they would get a random reward (bag of chips, extra outdoor time, etc.)
study two — lowered rule breaking, easy to implement
token reinforcement based on buttons
Functional behavioural assessment & positive behaviour supports
why are the acting out?
to receive attention, escape from an unpleasant situation, attain a reward or activity, or to meet sensory needs
functional behavioural assessments = procedures used to obtain information about ABCs to determine the reason/function of
behaviour
you can interview the students, talk to parents or other teachers
the same behaviours may serve different functions for different students
positive behaviour supports = interventions designed to replace problem behaviours with new actions that serve the same purpose
for the student
esp. helpful when dealing with students with disabilities
need to involve the whole school
pre correction = preventive strategy
identify the context for their misbehaviour
specify the alternative expected behaviour
modify the situation to make the problem behaviour less likely
rehearse the expected positive behaviours
provide powerful reinforcers
Self-management
the responsibility and the ability to learn rests within the student
students must be active — no one can learn for someone else
students may be involved in any or all of the steps
self-management = management of one’s own behaviour, and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions
using behavioural learning principles to change your own behaviour
goal setting
very important — performed significantly better if set publicly
student-set goals have a tendency to reflect lower expectations
monitoring and evaluating progress
self-evaluation can be difficult, because it involves making a quality judgement
self-reinforcement
may add nothing
more likely to work if you really deny yourself something you want to provide incentive
Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms
Beyond behaviourism: Bandura’s challenge
Bandura’s learning theory
social learning theory = emphasizes learning through observation
enactive and observational learning
inactive learning = learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of actions
observational learning = learning by watching and imitating others (vicarious)
learning and performance
e.g. Bobo doll experiment
incentives can affect performance (which is why some students don’t perform ‘bad behaviours’)
Rewarding learning
should we reward students for learning
probably not for little things
can reward them (if for anything) for mastery of a subject
consider the impact on other students
Behavioural approaches: lessons for teachers
1. no one eagerly repeats behaviours that have been punished or ignored
without some sense of progress, it is difficult to persist
2. when actions lead to positive consequences, they are more likely to be repeated
3. teachers often fail to use reinforcement to recognize appropriate behaviour
instead, the respond to inappropriate behaviours, sometimes reinforcing attention
4. to be effective, praise must be sincere recognition of real accomplishment
5. whatever their current level of functioning, students can learn to be more self-managing
CHAPTER 8 (overview)
BOERKAERTS & CORNO (Self-Regulation in the Classroom)
Self-regulation for different purposes
Overview
students have to make the decision to pursue their education
‘crossing the Rubicon’, so to speak
this is all related to goal-setting
students have to balance two priorities
achieve growth goals that increase resources (knowledge, cognitive and social skills)
maintain emotional well-being (look smart, protect ego, avoid harm, secure resources)
Top-down self-regulation — learning goals steer the process
these learners set goals, know what they know and believe, understand motivation, etc.
not all students do this
some students resent their teachers for trying to make them in charge of their own learning
others seek social goals rather than educational
Bottom-up self-regulation — self-regulation is caused by the environment
feedback from the task and classroom structures that generate change
especially social problems
is not maladaptive when it helps prepare the student for learning
all students face stressors, but exceptional students have to manage chronic stressors
it may be more difficult for them
but on the other hand, they’re used to having to self-regulate, in a manner of speaking
but emotions can override goals and actions
Using volitional strategies to stay on or switch tasks
volitional strategies = time and resource management, goal prioritization, marking completed tasks
when students use volitional strategies, they are more likely to overcome obstacles, and still find value in the task they are
completing
and recover from environmental issues
Shifting definitions of SRL imply changing measurement
Self-report questionnaires — assess the frequency of students’ reported strategy use
Observations of overt behaviour — verbal and non-verbal behaviour
Interview evidence — structured or semi-structured
stimulated recall = watching videotapes of themselves and describing their actions and feelings
Think-aloud protocols — reporting thoughts, feelings, and strategies while solving problems or assignments
issue with younger students (lack of adequate vocabulary)
Traces of mental events and processes — written comments in the margin, random notes, etc.
Situational manipulations — setting up a situation and watching how they go about their tasks
Recording student motivation strategies as they work
Keeping diaries — recording metacognitive or motivation and volition strategies
SR in classrooms: a typology of interventions
Cognitive-behaviour modification interventions
stress inoculation theory
focused on direct and maintaining attention, coping with difficulty and anxiety
replacing maladaptive thoughts with productive ones
can be costly, time-consuming, and cumbersome
mental stimulations
the most successful one is running a ‘mind simulation’ of what they are doing after they finish their task
controls focus on the work to be done
manipulating students’ motivation in tasks
modifying the classroom environment
promote motivation to learn, rather than motivation to hide weakness or outperform others
Direct instruction in learning and metacognitive skills and strategies
academic strategy instruction
Second generation classroom interventions based on principles of socioculturalism
apprenticeships in activities that develop subject-matter expertise
computer mediated learning environments
collaborative learning in classrooms
Current developments: learning communities in schools and beyond
establishing and evaluating school-wide interventions
teachers as partners in research
Document Summary
Neuroscience of behavioural learning (e. g. re ex learning, stimulation and association) Early explanations of learning: contiguity and classical conditioning. Some de nitions contiguity = association of two events because of repeated pairing stimulus = event that activates behaviour response = observable reaction to a stimulus. Classical conditioning = association of automatic responses with new stimuli neutral stimulus vs. unconditioned stimulus vs. unconditioned response vs. conditioned stimulus vs. conditioned response. De nitions operants = voluntary behaviours emitted by a person or animal operant conditioning = learning in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents antecedents = events preceding an action consequences = events following an action. Rewarding learning should we reward students for learning probably not for little things can reward them (if for anything) for mastery of a subject consider the impact on other students. Overview students have to make the decision to pursue their education students have to make the decision to pursue their education.
