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R PROGRAMMING Lecture Notes - Coding Conventions, Standard Streams

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9 Nov 2022

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Madurai Kamaraj University

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A tuple may be thought of as an immutable list. Tuples are constructed by placing the items inside parentheses: Tuples can be indexed and sliced in the same way as lists but, being immutable, they cannot be appended to, extended, or have elements removed from them: Typeerror: "tuple" object does not support item assignment. Although a tuple itself is immutable, it may contain references to mutable objects such as lists. >>> t = (1, ["a", "b", "d"], 0) >>> t[1][2] = "c" # ok to change the list within the tuple. An empty tuple is created with empty parentheses: t0 = (). In some circumstances, particularly for simple assignments such as those in the previous section, the parentheses around a tuple"s items are not required: This usage is an example of tuple packing. The reverse, tuple unpacking is a common way of assigning multiple variables in one line: >>> a, b, c = 97, 98, 99.

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Persuasive Essay Part 2

Student Resource

Writing a Persuasive Essay - Part 2 [Step 2 - Draft]

Assignment:

Write a draft of your Persuasive Essay.

* Introduction - First, hook your reader with an interesting opener. Then give some background on your topic. Next, write a thesis sentence that includes your stance, a course of thinking or action your readers should take, and a brief summary of the reasons this course is necessary.

* Supporting paragraphs - Each supporting paragraph should refer back to the thesis. NOTE: The supporting paragraphs will be more powerful if you present the opposing counterargument first, counter it with your own argument, and then provide your supporting evidence. (Using this order is kind of like having the last word!)

* Conclusion - Your conclusion should relate to your thesis and tie your supporting points together.

SAMPLE DRAFT

* Thesis Paragraph - In the old children's tale, Chicken Little thought the sky was falling. Is that tale coming true? Every day thousands of objects from space enter the earth's atmosphere objects put there by man himself that are now raining back down on him. Though there haven't been any huge catastrophes so far, the problem is getting worse each year, and it is only a matter of time. Due to the increasing risk of space debris falling back to earth in inhabited areas or damaging orbiting spacecraft, we, as a global community, need to define and adopt a comprehensive policy that eliminates existing space debris and prevents more in the future.

* Supporting paragraph #1 - Putting in place a global plan to control space debris may seem unnecessary to some since the chance of impact is very small, according to the Johnson Space Center, which gave an only 1 in 10,000 risk to humans. [Reference] However, these statistics don't reflect the increase in space debris each year nor the increasing number of maneuvers necessary to protect manned spacecraft like the International Space Station from debilitating and, thereby, possibly life-threatening collisions with space junk. This is borne out by NASA scientist Nicholas Johnson, who confirmed that ... [Give details and references.]

* Conclusion - Although the chance of humans being hit or satellites being damaged by space debris is small at this time and the cost of eliminating and preventing debris would be substantial, the space debris problem is only going to grow. Space debris will become a material threat at some point in the not-too-distant future. The best solution is to take it on now with a global plan.

In this assignment you will be using the scientific method to develop your own experiment. You will not be conducting the experiment but you will develop one based on a hypothesis. You will submit a project containing the needed information outlined under the "Project" section.

Background Information:

The scientific method is a process used by scientists to develop experiments and test hypotheses. This process begins by making observations. The next step is to develop a question based on these observations, such as how something works.

Based on the question under investigation, a hypothesis is created. A hypothesis should be a prediction of what happens. It is written in an "if, then" format. An is designed to test a specific hypothesis. A scientific experiment should have an independent variable, dependent variable, and a control group. The independent experiment variable is what is changed in the experiment. The dependent variable is what is measured in the experiment.

A control group is a group in which the independent variable undergoes no change. The control group in an experiment serves as a baseline to measure the results of the experiment and can be very useful in isolating unknown factors which may influence the dependent variable.

Remember that a good experiment includes multiple repetitions for each experimental group.

Once an experiment has been conducted, all of the data collected is analyzed. Scientists look for trends in the data and use statistical analysis to compare all of the experimental groups. This is then compared to the hypothesis to see if the data does or does not support the hypothesis. Through this method scientists draw conclusions about their hypothesis based on whether or not their experiment was successful.

Below are the instructions for each section of the project. For this assignment you will follow the steps of the scientific method and develop your own experiment.

You will need to include all of the following information:

Topic: Start by deciding what you would like to investigate. Your topic may be related to biology, the environment around you, or some other topic you are interested in.

Observations: Make a number of observations related to your topic. If the topic you chose isn't something you can observe around you then you may conduct research about your topic and record any noteworthy information. Include a paragraph describing your observations in your final submission.

Questions: Using your observations or research, think about your topic and ask some questions. Think about how it works or why it may behave a certain way. Come up with two or three questions about your topic.

Hypothesis: Use the questions you came up with to develop your hypothesis. This is a prediction of what you think will happen and should be able to be tested. A hypothesis is written in an "if, then" format. If this happens, then this will happen.

Experiment: Once you develop a hypothesis, think of how it could be tested in an experiment. What would you be testing? What would you measure? Remember that you need a control group. The purpose of this group is to serve as a reference that can be used to compare your experimental results to. This gives you something to compare with all the experimental groups and monitor any change. Record all of the following information about your experiment.

Independent Variable: This is what you are changing in the experiment.

Dependent Variable: This is what you are measuring.

Control Group: This is the group unaffected by the independent variable.

Experimental Groups: These are the groups affected by the independent variable and there should be multiple replications for each group.

Submission:

Be creative with how you present your information. This can be done in a list, in a chart, in paragraph form, or another way. Be sure to include your topic, observations, questions, hypothesis, and the details of your experiment. Be descriptive with your language in each section and use correct grammar.

Diffusion Lab

In this lab you will investigate how molecules transport in a cell through diffusion and osmosis. You will observe both diffusion and osmosis using an egg and three different substances. You will write a hypothesis, perform an experiment, record observations, collect data, and answer questions after the lab. Below you will find the materials needed for the lab, the procedure for conducting the lab, and a sample layout for your lab notebook page.

Background Information:

The cell membrane surrounds every cell and is the organelle that regulates what moves into and out of a cell. They are selectively permeable which means they only allow certain things to move across the membrane.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration. It is a type of passive transport meaning that it does not require energy from the cell.

Osmosis is the process where water molecules diffuse across the cell membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

For the Lab:

This lab should be done over four consecutive days. You will need to obtain these materials. You should create a lab notebook page to record your hypothesis, observations, and write your conclusions. You can create the notebook page on paper or on a computer.

1 raw egg
Container that will hold 2 cups or more (It should be large enough to fully submerge the egg in a liquid)
Tape measure
Vinegar
Corn syrup
Distilled water
Plastic Wrap

Note: Nothing in this lab should harm you, but be careful and ask for help if you need it. Wash your hands every time after you handle the egg and clean your lab area after each day. If you need assistance get adult supervision.

Lab Procedure:

Start by writing a hypothesis to answer the following experiment question: Make sure the hypothesis is in the "if, then" format.

What happens to a raw egg when it is covered first in vinegar, then corn syrup, and then distilled water?

Perform the experiment over 4 consecutive days at about the same time each day. Below you will find instructions for each day:

1. Measure the egg's circumference in centimeters using the tape measure. Record the measurement on the observation table.

2. Record any "before" observations about the egg's appearance (color, shape, texture, size).

3. Carefully place the egg in the container and add vinegar until the egg is fully covered.

4. Cover the container with plastic wrap and leave overnight.

1. Very carefully take the egg out of the vinegar and dry it off.

2. Measure the egg's circumference using the tape measure. Record the measurement on your observation table.

3. Record any "after" observations on your observation table.

4. Clean out the container with soap and water and place the egg back in the container.

5. Add corn syrup until the egg is fully covered. Record any "before" observations on your observation table.

6. Cover with plastic wrap and leave overnight.

1. Repeat steps 1-4 from Day 2 .

2. Add distilled water to the container until the egg is fully covered. Record any "before" observations on your observation table.

3. Cover with plastic wrap and leave overnight.

1. Repeat steps 1-3 from Day 2 .

2. Clean the container and throw away the egg.

When recording the circumference of the egg do so in centimeters. Your observations should describe the appearance of the egg and any other important facts you notice. Look at the color, size, shape, texture and anything that changes about the egg throughout the experiment.

Below is a sample of how to set up your lab page to record your experimental data. You should leave as much space as needed for each part.

Sample Lab Notebook Setup:

Observation Table

Post-Lab Questions:

1.Describe what happened to the egg after soaking it in vinegar for 24 hours.

2.Describe what happened to the egg after soaking it in corn syrup for 24 hours.

3.Describe what happened to the egg after soaking it in the distilled water for 24 hours.

4.How did you see diffusion and osmosis in this lab?

Fill in the chart as you go through the experiment. When done with the experiment answer the post lab questions. Submit your lab page with your observations and answers to the post-lab questions. You can submit either a picture of your work or upload a document.

Things to remember:

Qualitative observations describe appearance (color, texture, shape, size, smell, etc.)
The variables in this lab are vinegar, corn syrup, and distilled water.
The controlled variables are the egg, beaker, and the time the egg is exposed to each substance.
The independent variable is the substance the egg is submerged in (vinegar, corn syrup, and distilled water).
The dependent variable is what happens to the egg after being exposed to the three different substances.

Biology Special Lesson: Diffusion Lab

This rubric is an outline of how the lab information you submit will be graded.