ACCT 210 Lecture Notes - Lecture 15: Opportunity Cost, Contribution Margin, Transfer Pricing
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Cost-Based Pricing
Companies use various strategies to set price. Since cost is animportant determinant of supply and is known to the producer, manycompanies base price on cost. Still other companies use atarget-costing strategy, or strategies based on the initialconditions in the market.
A cost-based pricing approach starts with product cost and thendesired profit is added. Usually, there is some cost base and amarkup. The markup is a percentage applied to base cost; itincludes desired profit and any costs not included in the basecost. Companies that bid for jobs routinely base bid price oncost.
Example: Linder Company makes and sells vitaminsupplements. The following information from last year's accountingrecords showed:
| Cost of Goods Sold | $254,000 |
| Selling and administrativeexpense | 86,360 |
| Operating income | 111,760 |
The markup percentage must include all costs that are not a partof cost of goods sold plus the desired profit. For Linder Company,the markup on COGS is found as follows:
| Markup on COGS | = (Selling and administrativeexpenses + Operating income)/COGS |
| = ($86,360 + $111,760)/$254,000 =0.78 or 78% |
Now, if Linder Company produces a new product with manufacturingcost of $2 per unit, the unit price at this markup is:
| Price = $2 + (0.78 Ã $2) = $2.00 +$1.56 = $3.56 |
A Company does not have to use Cost of Goods Sold as the basisof the markup. For example, a job-order firm might decide to usethe markup on prime costs (direct materials and direct labor) tocost jobs. Suppose that Carl's Custom Cabinetry wants to price jobsbased on prime costs plus a markup on prime cost. Last year'sincome statement revealed the following information:
| Prime costs | $134,000 |
| Overhead | 73,700 |
| Selling and administrativeexpense | 38,860 |
| Operating income | 50,920 |
| Markup on Prime Cost | = (Overhead + Selling andadministrative expenses + Operating income)/Prime cost |
| = ($73,700 + $38,860 +$50,920)/$134,000 = 1.22 or 122% |
Carl is pricing a new job with estimated direct materials of$4,300 and direct labor of $1,800. The estimated price is:
| Price = ($4,300 + $1,800) + (1.22 Ã$6,100) = $6,100 + $7,442 = $13,542 |
Neither Linder Company nor Carl's Custom Cabinets must use theprice figured according to the markup. This is just a firstapproximation. Carl, for example, may want to set a lower price inhopes of getting more business from this particular customer.Linder Company may want to charge a higher price based on marketconsiderations.
Target Costing
Another approach to pricing a product or service is targetcosting. The target cost is based on the price (target price) thatcustomers are willing to pay. The Marketing Department determineswhat characteristics and price for a product are most acceptable toconsumers. Then, it is the job of the company's engineers to designand develop the product such that cost and profit can be covered bythat price. Japanese firms have been doing this for years; Americancompanies are beginning to use target costing. So first the targetprice is set. Then the desired profit is deducted, and theremaining amount is the target cost.
| Target cost = Target price -Desired profit |
Determining the target cost is relatively easy. Actuallydesigning and manufacturing a product that will achieve the targetcost and sell for the target price is more difficult. As a result,target costing is an iterative process as the firm works to refinethe proposed product to meet the cost and price targets.
Price Discrimination
Price discrimination refers to the charging of different pricesto different customers for essentially the same product. TheRobinson-Patman Act was passed in 1936 as a means of outlawingprice discrimination by manufacturers or suppliers; services andintangibles are not included under the act.
The Robinson-Patman Act does allow price discrimination undercertain specified conditions: (1) if the competitive situationdemands it and (2) if costs (including costs of manufacture, sale,or delivery) can justify the lower price. According to the secondcondition, a lower price offered to one customer must be justifiedby identifiable cost savings and the amount of the discount must beat least equaled by the amount of cost saved.
To compute a cost differential, the company creates classes ofcustomers based on the average costs of selling to those customers.Then all customers in each group are charged a cost-justifiableprice.
Example: Raul Company manufactures specializedelastic bandages used to reinforce athletes' wrists or ankles. Raulsells to a number of individual physical therapists and athletictrainers as well as to Medallion Gym, a national chain of physicalfitness facilities. The average manufacturing cost is $169 per case(a case contains 100 plastic-wrapped elastic bandages). RaulCompany sold 350,000 cases last year to the following two classesof customer.
| Price | Quantity | |
|---|---|---|
| Medallion Gym | $235 | 175,000 |
| Individual trainers and physicaltherapists | $241 | 175,000 |
Medallion Gym requires that the bandages be individuallypackaged in boxes with the Medallion name on the label. This boxand special labelling costs $0.34 per unit. Raul also pays allshipping costs, which amounted to $1,400,000 last year.
The individual trainers and physical therapists order in smalllots that require special picking and packing in the factory; thespecial handling adds $20 to the cost of each case sold. Salescommissions to the independent jobbers who sell Raul products tothe trainers and physical therapists average 10 percent of sales.Bad debts expense amounts to 1 percent of sales.
The cost per case for each customer category can be computed asfollows:
| Medallion Gym: | |
|---|---|
| Manufacturing cost per case | $169.00 |
| Box and special labelling ($0.34 Ã100) | 34.00 |
| Shipping ($1,400,000/175,000cases) | 8.00 |
| Total cost per case | $211.00 |
| Individual Trainers and PhysicalTherapists: | |
|---|---|
| Manufacturing cost per case | $169.00 |
| Special handling | 20.00 |
| Sales commission ($241 x 0.10) | 24.10 |
| Bad debts expense ($241 x0.01) | 2.41 |
| Total cost per case | $215.51 |
Profit and profit percentages are as follows:
| Medallion Gym | Trainers and Physical Therapists | |
|---|---|---|
| Price per case | $235.00 | $241.00 |
| Less: cost per case | 211.00 | 215.51 |
| Profit per case | $24.00 | $25.49 |
| Profit percentage | 10.21% | 10.58% |
The company will need to see if the profit percentages range areclose to one another; if so, there would be a cost justificationfor the price differential. If not, the company may need toconsider potential price discrimination and change its price forthe customer group that it considers to be "out of line."
For each of the following situations, determine whether or notthere is price discrimination according to the Robinson-PatmanAct.
| 1. | Dr. Jeffrey Lowman, M.D., chargesless to patients who he feels cannot afford his usual fee.- Selectyour answer -YesNoItem 1 |
| 2. | Damian Company manufacturesspecialty jams and jellies. Damian is located in Amarillo, Texas,and sells only to stores in the Amarillo area. Sometimes Damianoffers a price break to store owners whose children attend the sameschools as Damian's children. - Select your answer -YesNoItem2 |
| 3. | A national manufacturer of hairproducts charges a significantly lower price to large chain storesthan to smaller stores. The price differential is not supported bycost differences. - Select your answer -YesNo |
