MULT20003 Lecture Notes - Lecture 2: Instrumental Case, External Validity, Construct Validity
19 Jun 2018
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Week 2 – Sampling Methods
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• Epistemology - Subjectivism Constructionism Objectivism. Crotty suggests that an
interrelationship exists between the theoretical stance adopted by the researcher, the
methodology and methods used, and the researcher’s view of the epistemology.
Natural tendency for the researcher to select data gathering method, but choice of
research methodology is influenced by the theoretical perspectives adopted by the
researcher and their epistemological stance. ‘What it means to know’ Decides what
kinds of knowledge are legitimate and adequate. E.g. an objectivist approach where
consciousness is seperate from external reality ad everything should be studied
objectively, positivist approach where external reality must be investigated through
rigorous scientific inquiry, and constructivism which contrarily rejects the view of human
knowledge as meaning is constructed and not discovered. A theory of knowledge:
How we know what we know
Concerns the sources, methods and limits of knowledge and the justification for those sources,
methods and limits
• Ontology - study of being, nature of existence and what constitutes reality. ‘What is’ E.g.
objectivismA theory of ‘being’ or ‘what is’:
The foundations of what we know
If you and I disagree about the ontological foundations of a subject, then we will never agree on
the knowledge that arises from it. Is there an objective reality outside the human mind?
Realism (usually informs positivism) Are there many equally valid, perhaps irreconcilable
realities? Realism (interpretivism)
• Case Study: The purpose of a case is not to represent the world, but represent the case,
or what is found within it.
1. Predictive theories and universals cannot be found in the study of human affairs. Concrete,
context-dependent knowledge is, therefore, more valuable.
2. Formal generalization is overvalued as a source of scientific development, whereas “the force
of example” is underestimated.
3. The case study is useful for both generating and testing of hypotheses but is not limited to
these research activities alone.
•Intrinsic case study : better understanding of this particular case...
•Instrumental case study: insight into an issue or to ‘redraw a generalisation’
•Collective case study: instrumental extended to several cases for investigation of a
phenomenon, population etc.
•Extreme/deviant cases: obtain information on unusual cases, which can be especially
problematic or especially good in a more closely defined sense.
•Maximum variation cases: obtain information about the significance of various
circumstances for case process and outcome (e.g., three to four cases that are very
different on one dimension: form of organization, budget, etc.).
•Critical cases: To achieve information that permits logical deductions of the type, “If this
is (not) valid for this case, then it applies to all (no) cases.”
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•Paradigmatic cases: To develop a metaphor or establish a school for the domain that
the case concerns.
• Experimental Method (n>1): Experimental group (exposed to stimulus), control group
(not exposed). Exposure to stimulus is randomised. Less commonly used in social
science (although increasingly so).
• Statistical method (large n) Confirming or refuting theory External validity. Identify
causal effects. Test Variables. Can look through constant conjunction and correlation for
causation
• Case Studies (n usually = 1): Building theory, developing insights. Internal validity
Explore causal mechanisms New Variables. Can trace processes within case(s) to find
causation
• Comparative case studies (n>1):
1. Parallel demonstration of theory
2. Contrast of contexts
3. Macro-causal analysis - Most similar v most different approach
The nature of qualitative research
Steps for qualitative research:
1. General research question
2. Selection of relevant subjects
3. Collection of relevant data with qualitative methods
4. Interpret data - may need to collect additional data
5. Conceptual and theoretical work - may want tighter specification of research question
leading to collecting more data
6. Writing up findings and conclusions
Grounded theory:
⁃Theory derived from data, systematically gathered and analysed through the research
process. Data collection and analysis are carried out in tandem and referred and
repeated because the theory is concerned with the development.
Concepts in qualitative research:
⁃Definitive: concepts with the consequence that theory can be applied decisively to the
empirical world and tested effectively in research inquiry. Objective. refers precisely to
what is common to a class of objects, by the aid of a clear definition in terms of
attributes or fixed bench marks.
⁃Sensitising: concept lacks such specification of attributes or bench marks. Instead, it
gives the user a general sense of reference and guidance in approaching empirical
instances.
⁃Internal validity in qualitative research: Inter-observer consistency, good match
between what is observed and what is theoretical expected. No alternative explanations
or cause and effects and phenomena.
⁃External validity - Degree findings in a case can be generalised.
Trustworthiness of a qualitative study depends on:
1. Credibility = internal validity e.g. triangulation
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