PSYC100 Lecture Notes - Lecture 9: Lateralization Of Brain Function, Temporal Lobe, Explicit Memory
Memory
Models of Memory
Why is it important?
•Fundamental to daily function
•Creates meaningful life narratives
•Learn from mistakes
Divisions of memory
•Explicit vs implicit
◦Explicit> declarative memory: learning information that is consciously
recollected
◦Implicit> non-declarative memory: skill and procedural leaning that occurs
unconsciously
•Verbal vs visual (sensory)
◦Imperfect lateralisation for memory
◦Left temporal lobe damage
•disrupts memory for stories, words, and numbers
◦Right temporal lobe damage
•disrupts memory for faces, figures, and tunes
•Episodic vs semantic
◦Episodic: Memory for events – rich in detail and context, personally
experienced, specific to time and place, requires mental time travel
◦Semantic: Store of factual knowledge, words and concepts – personal or not,
independent of context
•Retrospective vs prospective
◦Prospective: Remembering to remember
◦Integration of planning skills (executive functions), attention, and memory
Models of Memory
•Often take memory for granted
•Simple acts are often inherently complex
•Multiple models of memory attempt to explain how information is encoded,
stored and retrieved:
◦Multiple memory systems-brain contains independent memory systems
◦Levels-of-processing model
◦Transfer-appropriate processing model
Depth of processing
•How deeply information is encoded or processed
•Maintenance information rehearsal
◦Repeating information over an over
•Elaborative rehearsal
◦Relate new information to things you already know
Context and state dependence
•How you encode should match how you will retrieve
◦Context dependant memory: Same context for encoding and retrieval can
help with remembering
•For example: if you were in a car crash and you go down that same road as
the crash, it can bring up that specific memory
◦State dependant memory: Same emotional state for encoding and retrieval
can also help with remembering
Knowledge networks
•You integrate new experiences with existing knowledge or memories
◦Everything you know is connected
Information Processing
•Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model was most influential
◦Two temporary storage units before long-term store
◦Three stages: Sensory register, short-term and long-term
Encoding
Frequently forget the names of people we have just met due to not
constructing a memory code for the name
Attention is diverted ○
Active encoding is important ○
•
How do we encode information? •
Attention
Need to pay attention •
Selective attention is where we filter stimuli •
Divded attention; difficulty focusing on two things at once
Watching tv while reading psychology textbook ▪
Reduces in memory ability ○
Brain can only handles one thing at a time ○
•
Enriching Endcoding
Spacing
Masses rehearsel; one long session
Easy initial learning ▪
Highe state of activation ▪
○
Spaced rehearsal; distributed over time
Doubles long-term retention ▪
○
Elaboration
Linking incoming stimulus with other information
Link the information from this lecture to your own life •
▪
○
Visual imagery
Using images to represent words
Abstract versus concrete•
Pavio el al (1968) examined the impact of low imagery
and high imagery words
•
Imagery = second king of memory
Dual coding theory ○
•
▪
○
Self-reference encoding
Personally relevant
Think og how what we talked about in our learninng
lecture last week applies to you (taste aversions)
•
▪
○
Motivation to remember (MTR)
Exert more effort if the informatino is deemed important
Increase in MTR at encoding is most beneficial •
▪
○
•
Storage
Information Processing
Sensory memory
Hold perceived information for approxiamtely half a second in orginial
state
Brief mental representation
Additional times for recognition ▪
○
Iconic storage; maintaining visual icon
Half second to 2 seconds▪
After image; rapidly move your pencil in front of your eyes ▪
○
Echonic storage ○
•
Unimportant information can drop out of sensory register •
Short-term memory
Information from sensory register can be passed onto short-term
memory
Information in consciousness ○
20 seconds (without rehearsal) ○
•
Limited capacity assessed through digit span
Miller (1956) ; seven +/- 2 pieces ○
•
Limited capacity may be less than orginially thought
Cowan ; 4+/- 1
Over-estimated due to rehearsal or chunking (putting
information into smaller pieces to remember eg. Phone
numbers)
▪
○
Can increase capactiy by chunking ○
•
Rehersal
Not a passive process ○
Can control informatino stored ○
Mantenance rehersal
Can you remember this phone number? ▪
Can help transfer informatino to long-term memory?▪
○
•
Unimportant information can drop out of STM •
STM as working memory
Baddeley (1986, 2007) developed a more complex version of STM •
Working memory; space that can be used to solve problems
Phonological loop; rehersal of verbal information ○
Visual-spatial sketchpad; temporary storage of visual images
Re-arrange images ▪
○
Central executive; controls attention and coordinates action ○
Episodic buffer; allows components of WM to intergrate
information – interface
○
•
Working memory has limited duration and capacity as described in
STM
•
Working memory capacity; ability to hold and manipulate information
Stable personal trait ○
Can be reduced by stress and pressure ○
Correlates with reading comprehension ○
•
Long-Term Memory
Information can stay here for a lifetime (enduring)
Longer it spends in STM, the more likely it is to enter LTM ○
Retrieval of information from LTM to STM○
•
Capacity is limitless •
Can be difficult to assess
What was the name of your kindergarden teacher?○
Forgetting may be a product of difficultly retreiving ○
•
Mental representation and organisation
Mental representation
Sendory representations
Information in a sensory mode ○
Visual; Seeing yourself doing something, Where you left your
phone or did you lock the door?
○
Auditory; recalling music ○
Semll; What food someone is cooking (although not completely
reliable)
○
•
Verbal representations
Information in words
Only some information stored as verbal ▪
Using verbal representations inappropriately can disrupt
sensory-based memory
▪
○
•
Clustering and concepts
Bousfield (1953) observed that people categories information
Sixty words random order
Animals, mens names, vegetables or professions ▪
○
Clustering ○
Conceptual hierrchy
Can improve recall ▪
○
Can compare LTM to a filing cabinet
Important at front ▪
Broad categories and subcategories ▪
○
•
Schemas
Schemas are 'mental representation of categories of objects, event and
people' (Bernstein, 2013, p264)
•
Schemas are used when we find ourselves in a novel situatin
Match against existing schemas ○
Predictable environment ○
•
Shemas influence the information we encode and shape our
reconstruction
Brewer and Treyens (1981)' office schema
Can lead to true and false recall ▪
Likely to remember consitent items or extremely
inconsistent items
▪
○
•
Semantic Networds
'Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways
that link related concepts' (Weiten, 2013, p 285)
Ovals = nodes ○
Lines = pathways ○
•
A single word (eg. Dog) is associated with many other words
Bark= characteristics ○
Cat = household pets ○
Being bitten when you were a child = personal associations ○
•
Explains why remembering one word can trigger other words
Dog and bark ○
Automatically think of related words
Spreading activation ▪
Strength reduces as activation moves outwards▪
○
•
Retrieval
No use in soring information if we cannot access it again
Retrieval is an improtant concept ○
•
Cues
Tip-of-the-tongue ; unable to rememeber somehting which feels
just out of reach
Name recall ▪
Increases with age ▪
Found in all cultures ▪
○
Retrival can support memory
Brown and Mcneill (1966); definitions of obscure words
Guessed first letter 57% of the time•
▪
○
•
Context
Recalling the context can help
'What did you have fro breakfast on Monday?' ▪
○
Situations can bring back memories
Going back to your frist school ▪
Retracing your steps to remember something you have
forgotten
▪
○
•
Reconstruction memories
Memories are not always accurate ○
Loftus (1979); misinformation effect
'Recall of an even witnessed is altered by inducing
misleading postevent information
▪
○
Loftus and Palmer (1974): “About how fast were the cars going
when they [verb] each other” and “Did you see glass?”
Hit▪
Smashed into ▪
Contactedwith ▪
○
Retelling an event can introduce inaccuracies
Can also alter subsequent recall of the event ▪
○
•
Reality monitoring
Misinformation is partically due to monitoring errors○
Reality monitoring; deciding whether a memory is based on real
events of you imagination
▪
○
•
Week 9 -Lecture
Friday, 5 May 2017
10:31 AM
Memory
Models of Memory
Why is it important?
•Fundamental to daily function
•Creates meaningful life narratives
•Learn from mistakes
Divisions of memory
•Explicit vs implicit
◦Explicit> declarative memory: learning information that is consciously
recollected
◦Implicit> non-declarative memory: skill and procedural leaning that occurs
unconsciously
•Verbal vs visual (sensory)
◦Imperfect lateralisation for memory
◦Left temporal lobe damage
•disrupts memory for stories, words, and numbers
◦Right temporal lobe damage
•disrupts memory for faces, figures, and tunes
•Episodic vs semantic
◦Episodic: Memory for events – rich in detail and context, personally
experienced, specific to time and place, requires mental time travel
◦Semantic: Store of factual knowledge, words and concepts – personal or not,
independent of context
•Retrospective vs prospective
◦Prospective: Remembering to remember
◦Integration of planning skills (executive functions), attention, and memory
Models of Memory
•Often take memory for granted
•Simple acts are often inherently complex
•Multiple models of memory attempt to explain how information is encoded,
stored and retrieved:
◦Multiple memory systems-brain contains independent memory systems
◦Levels-of-processing model
◦Transfer-appropriate processing model
Depth of processing
•How deeply information is encoded or processed
•Maintenance information rehearsal
◦Repeating information over an over
•Elaborative rehearsal
◦Relate new information to things you already know
Context and state dependence
•How you encode should match how you will retrieve
◦Context dependant memory: Same context for encoding and retrieval can
help with remembering
•For example: if you were in a car crash and you go down that same road as
the crash, it can bring up that specific memory
◦State dependant memory: Same emotional state for encoding and retrieval
can also help with remembering
Knowledge networks
•You integrate new experiences with existing knowledge or memories
◦Everything you know is connected
Information Processing
•Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model was most influential
◦Two temporary storage units before long-term store
◦Three stages: Sensory register, short-term and long-term
Encoding
Frequently forget the names of people we have just met due to not
constructing a memory code for the name
Attention is diverted ○
Active encoding is important ○
•
How do we encode information? •
Attention
Need to pay attention •
Selective attention is where we filter stimuli •
Divded attention; difficulty focusing on two things at once
Watching tv while reading psychology textbook ▪
Reduces in memory ability ○
Brain can only handles one thing at a time ○
•
Enriching Endcoding
Spacing
Masses rehearsel; one long session
Easy initial learning ▪
Highe state of activation ▪
○
Spaced rehearsal; distributed over time
Doubles long-term retention ▪
○
Elaboration
Linking incoming stimulus with other information
Link the information from this lecture to your own life •
▪
○
Visual imagery
Using images to represent words
Abstract versus concrete•
Pavio el al (1968) examined the impact of low imagery
and high imagery words
•
Imagery = second king of memory
Dual coding theory ○
•
▪
○
Self-reference encoding
Personally relevant
Think og how what we talked about in our learninng
lecture last week applies to you (taste aversions)
•
▪
○
Motivation to remember (MTR)
Exert more effort if the informatino is deemed important
Increase in MTR at encoding is most beneficial •
▪
○
•
Storage
Information Processing
Sensory memory
Hold perceived information for approxiamtely half a second in orginial
state
Brief mental representation
Additional times for recognition ▪
○
Iconic storage; maintaining visual icon
Half second to 2 seconds▪
After image; rapidly move your pencil in front of your eyes ▪
○
Echonic storage ○
•
Unimportant information can drop out of sensory register •
Short-term memory
Information from sensory register can be passed onto short-term
memory
Information in consciousness ○
20 seconds (without rehearsal) ○
•
Limited capacity assessed through digit span
Miller (1956) ; seven +/- 2 pieces ○
•
Limited capacity may be less than orginially thought
Cowan ; 4+/- 1
Over-estimated due to rehearsal or chunking (putting
information into smaller pieces to remember eg. Phone
numbers)
▪
○
Can increase capactiy by chunking ○
•
Rehersal
Not a passive process ○
Can control informatino stored ○
Mantenance rehersal
Can you remember this phone number? ▪
Can help transfer informatino to long-term memory?▪
○
•
Unimportant information can drop out of STM •
STM as working memory
Baddeley (1986, 2007) developed a more complex version of STM •
Working memory; space that can be used to solve problems
Phonological loop; rehersal of verbal information ○
Visual-spatial sketchpad; temporary storage of visual images
Re-arrange images ▪
○
Central executive; controls attention and coordinates action ○
Episodic buffer; allows components of WM to intergrate
information – interface
○
•
Working memory has limited duration and capacity as described in
STM
•
Working memory capacity; ability to hold and manipulate information
Stable personal trait ○
Can be reduced by stress and pressure ○
Correlates with reading comprehension ○
•
Long-Term Memory
Information can stay here for a lifetime (enduring)
Longer it spends in STM, the more likely it is to enter LTM ○
Retrieval of information from LTM to STM○
•
Capacity is limitless •
Can be difficult to assess
What was the name of your kindergarden teacher?○
Forgetting may be a product of difficultly retreiving ○
•
Mental representation and organisation
Mental representation
Sendory representations
Information in a sensory mode ○
Visual; Seeing yourself doing something, Where you left your
phone or did you lock the door?
○
Auditory; recalling music ○
Semll; What food someone is cooking (although not completely
reliable)
○
•
Verbal representations
Information in words
Only some information stored as verbal ▪
Using verbal representations inappropriately can disrupt
sensory-based memory
▪
○
•
Clustering and concepts
Bousfield (1953) observed that people categories information
Sixty words random order
Animals, mens names, vegetables or professions ▪
○
Clustering ○
Conceptual hierrchy
Can improve recall ▪
○
Can compare LTM to a filing cabinet
Important at front ▪
Broad categories and subcategories ▪
○
•
Schemas
Schemas are 'mental representation of categories of objects, event and
people' (Bernstein, 2013, p264)
•
Schemas are used when we find ourselves in a novel situatin
Match against existing schemas ○
Predictable environment ○
•
Shemas influence the information we encode and shape our
reconstruction
Brewer and Treyens (1981)' office schema
Can lead to true and false recall ▪
Likely to remember consitent items or extremely
inconsistent items
▪
○
•
Semantic Networds
'Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways
that link related concepts' (Weiten, 2013, p 285)
Ovals = nodes ○
Lines = pathways ○
•
A single word (eg. Dog) is associated with many other words
Bark= characteristics ○
Cat = household pets ○
Being bitten when you were a child = personal associations ○
•
Explains why remembering one word can trigger other words
Dog and bark ○
Automatically think of related words
Spreading activation ▪
Strength reduces as activation moves outwards▪
○
•
Retrieval
No use in soring information if we cannot access it again
Retrieval is an improtant concept ○
•
Cues
Tip-of-the-tongue ; unable to rememeber somehting which feels
just out of reach
Name recall ▪
Increases with age ▪
Found in all cultures ▪
○
Retrival can support memory
Brown and Mcneill (1966); definitions of obscure words
Guessed first letter 57% of the time•
▪
○
•
Context
Recalling the context can help
'What did you have fro breakfast on Monday?' ▪
○
Situations can bring back memories
Going back to your frist school ▪
Retracing your steps to remember something you have
forgotten
▪
○
•
Reconstruction memories
Memories are not always accurate ○
Loftus (1979); misinformation effect
'Recall of an even witnessed is altered by inducing
misleading postevent information
▪
○
Loftus and Palmer (1974): “About how fast were the cars going
when they [verb] each other” and “Did you see glass?”
Hit▪
Smashed into ▪
Contactedwith ▪
○
Retelling an event can introduce inaccuracies
Can also alter subsequent recall of the event ▪
○
•
Reality monitoring
Misinformation is partically due to monitoring errors○
Reality monitoring; deciding whether a memory is based on real
events of you imagination
▪
○
•
Week 9 -Lecture
Friday, 5 May 2017 10:31 AM
Memory
Models of Memory
Why is it important?
•Fundamental to daily function
•Creates meaningful life narratives
•Learn from mistakes
Divisions of memory
•Explicit vs implicit
◦Explicit> declarative memory: learning information that is consciously
recollected
◦Implicit> non-declarative memory: skill and procedural leaning that occurs
unconsciously
•Verbal vs visual (sensory)
◦Imperfect lateralisation for memory
◦Left temporal lobe damage
•disrupts memory for stories, words, and numbers
◦Right temporal lobe damage
•disrupts memory for faces, figures, and tunes
•Episodic vs semantic
◦Episodic: Memory for events – rich in detail and context, personally
experienced, specific to time and place, requires mental time travel
◦Semantic: Store of factual knowledge, words and concepts – personal or not,
independent of context
•Retrospective vs prospective
◦Prospective: Remembering to remember
◦Integration of planning skills (executive functions), attention, and memory
Models of Memory
•Often take memory for granted
•Simple acts are often inherently complex
•Multiple models of memory attempt to explain how information is encoded,
stored and retrieved:
◦Multiple memory systems-brain contains independent memory systems
◦Levels-of-processing model
◦Transfer-appropriate processing model
Depth of processing
•How deeply information is encoded or processed
•Maintenance information rehearsal
◦Repeating information over an over
•Elaborative rehearsal
◦Relate new information to things you already know
Context and state dependence
•How you encode should match how you will retrieve
◦Context dependant memory: Same context for encoding and retrieval can
help with remembering
•For example: if you were in a car crash and you go down that same road as
the crash, it can bring up that specific memory
◦State dependant memory: Same emotional state for encoding and retrieval
can also help with remembering
Knowledge networks
•You integrate new experiences with existing knowledge or memories
◦Everything you know is connected
Information Processing
•Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model was most influential
◦Two temporary storage units before long-term store
◦Three stages: Sensory register, short-term and long-term
Encoding
Frequently forget the names of people we have just met due to not
constructing a memory code for the name
Attention is diverted
○
Active encoding is important
○
•
How do we encode information?
•
Attention
Need to pay attention
•
Selective attention is where we filter stimuli
•
Divded attention; difficulty focusing on two things at once
Watching tv while reading psychology textbook
▪
Reduces in memory ability
○
Brain can only handles one thing at a time
○
•
Enriching Endcoding
Spacing
Masses rehearsel; one long session
Easy initial learning
▪
Highe state of activation
▪
○
Spaced rehearsal; distributed over time
Doubles long-term retention
▪
○
Elaboration
Linking incoming stimulus with other information
Link the information from this lecture to your own life
•
▪
○
Visual imagery
Using images to represent words
Abstract versus concrete
•
Pavio el al (1968) examined the impact of low imagery
and high imagery words
•
Imagery = second king of memory
Dual coding theory
○
•
▪
○
Self-reference encoding
Personally relevant
Think og how what we talked about in our learninng
lecture last week applies to you (taste aversions)
•
▪
○
Motivation to remember (MTR)
Exert more effort if the informatino is deemed important
Increase in MTR at encoding is most beneficial •
▪
○
•
Storage
Information Processing
Sensory memory
Hold perceived information for approxiamtely half a second in orginial
state
Brief mental representation
Additional times for recognition ▪
○
Iconic storage; maintaining visual icon
Half second to 2 seconds▪
After image; rapidly move your pencil in front of your eyes ▪
○
Echonic storage ○
•
Unimportant information can drop out of sensory register •
Short-term memory
Information from sensory register can be passed onto short-term
memory
Information in consciousness ○
20 seconds (without rehearsal) ○
•
Limited capacity assessed through digit span
Miller (1956) ; seven +/- 2 pieces ○
•
Limited capacity may be less than orginially thought
Cowan ; 4+/- 1
Over-estimated due to rehearsal or chunking (putting
information into smaller pieces to remember eg. Phone
numbers)
▪
○
Can increase capactiy by chunking ○
•
Rehersal
Not a passive process ○
Can control informatino stored ○
Mantenance rehersal
Can you remember this phone number? ▪
Can help transfer informatino to long-term memory?▪
○
•
Unimportant information can drop out of STM •
STM as working memory
Baddeley (1986, 2007) developed a more complex version of STM •
Working memory; space that can be used to solve problems
Phonological loop; rehersal of verbal information ○
Visual-spatial sketchpad; temporary storage of visual images
Re-arrange images ▪
○
Central executive; controls attention and coordinates action ○
Episodic buffer; allows components of WM to intergrate
information – interface
○
•
Working memory has limited duration and capacity as described in
STM
•
Working memory capacity; ability to hold and manipulate information
Stable personal trait ○
Can be reduced by stress and pressure ○
Correlates with reading comprehension ○
•
Long-Term Memory
Information can stay here for a lifetime (enduring)
Longer it spends in STM, the more likely it is to enter LTM ○
Retrieval of information from LTM to STM○
•
Capacity is limitless •
Can be difficult to assess
What was the name of your kindergarden teacher?○
Forgetting may be a product of difficultly retreiving ○
•
Mental representation and organisation
Mental representation
Sendory representations
Information in a sensory mode ○
Visual; Seeing yourself doing something, Where you left your
phone or did you lock the door?
○
Auditory; recalling music ○
Semll; What food someone is cooking (although not completely
reliable)
○
•
Verbal representations
Information in words
Only some information stored as verbal ▪
Using verbal representations inappropriately can disrupt
sensory-based memory
▪
○
•
Clustering and concepts
Bousfield (1953) observed that people categories information
Sixty words random order
Animals, mens names, vegetables or professions ▪
○
Clustering ○
Conceptual hierrchy
Can improve recall ▪
○
Can compare LTM to a filing cabinet
Important at front ▪
Broad categories and subcategories ▪
○
•
Schemas
Schemas are 'mental representation of categories of objects, event and
people' (Bernstein, 2013, p264)
•
Schemas are used when we find ourselves in a novel situatin
Match against existing schemas ○
Predictable environment ○
•
Shemas influence the information we encode and shape our
reconstruction
Brewer and Treyens (1981)' office schema
Can lead to true and false recall ▪
Likely to remember consitent items or extremely
inconsistent items
▪
○
•
Semantic Networds
'Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways
that link related concepts' (Weiten, 2013, p 285)
Ovals = nodes ○
Lines = pathways ○
•
A single word (eg. Dog) is associated with many other words
Bark= characteristics ○
Cat = household pets ○
Being bitten when you were a child = personal associations ○
•
Explains why remembering one word can trigger other words
Dog and bark ○
Automatically think of related words
Spreading activation ▪
Strength reduces as activation moves outwards▪
○
•
Retrieval
No use in soring information if we cannot access it again
Retrieval is an improtant concept ○
•
Cues
Tip-of-the-tongue ; unable to rememeber somehting which feels
just out of reach
Name recall ▪
Increases with age ▪
Found in all cultures ▪
○
Retrival can support memory
Brown and Mcneill (1966); definitions of obscure words
Guessed first letter 57% of the time•
▪
○
•
Context
Recalling the context can help
'What did you have fro breakfast on Monday?' ▪
○
Situations can bring back memories
Going back to your frist school ▪
Retracing your steps to remember something you have
forgotten
▪
○
•
Reconstruction memories
Memories are not always accurate ○
Loftus (1979); misinformation effect
'Recall of an even witnessed is altered by inducing
misleading postevent information
▪
○
Loftus and Palmer (1974): “About how fast were the cars going
when they [verb] each other” and “Did you see glass?”
Hit▪
Smashed into ▪
Contactedwith ▪
○
Retelling an event can introduce inaccuracies
Can also alter subsequent recall of the event ▪
○
•
Reality monitoring
Misinformation is partically due to monitoring errors○
Reality monitoring; deciding whether a memory is based on real
events of you imagination
▪
○
•
Week 9 -Lecture
Friday, 5 May 2017 10:31 AM
Document Summary
Why is it important: fundamental to daily function, creates meaningful life narratives, learn from mistakes. Explicit> declarative memory: learning information that is consciously recollected. Implicit> non-declarative memory: skill and procedural leaning that occurs unconsciously: verbal vs visual (sensory) Left temporal lobe damage: disrupts memory for stories, words, and numbers. Right temporal lobe damage: disrupts memory for faces, figures, and tunes, episodic vs semantic. Episodic: memory for events rich in detail and context, personally experienced, specific to time and place, requires mental time travel. Semantic: store of factual knowledge, words and concepts personal or not, independent of context: retrospective vs prospective. Integration of planning skills (executive functions), attention, and memory. Models of memory: often take memory for granted, simple acts are often inherently complex, multiple models of memory attempt to explain how information is encoded, stored and retrieved: Depth of processing: how deeply information is encoded or processed, maintenance information rehearsal. Relate new information to things you already know.
