Biology 2244A/B Chapter Notes - Chapter 1: Unimodality, Roundoff, Exploratory Data Analysis
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Introduction: A Chi-square test is used to compare observed data with expected data according to a hypothesis. For instance, if you were crossbreeding 2 heterozygous pea plants, you would expect to see a 3:1 phenotypic ratio in the offspring. In this case, if you were to breed 400 pea plants, you would expect to see 300 plants showing the dominant trait and 100 showing the recessive trait. But what happens if you observe only 260 plants with the dominant trait and 140 plants with the recessive trait? Does this mean something is wrong with Mendelian genetics or is this difference in expected results just due to chance (random sampling error)? These are the questions that can be answered using Chi-square statistics. The results of this statistical test is used to either reject or accept (fail to reject) the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis states there is no significant difference between the observed results and the expected results. This means that if the null hypothesis is accepted, the difference in observed and expected results was just a matter of chance and so the observed results basically "fit" with what was expected. Degrees of freedom (df) = number of independent outcomes (Y) being compared less 1 df = Y-1 At the 95% confidence interval we are 95% confident that there is a significant difference between the observed and expected results, therefore rejecting the null hypothesis. Probability Value - Is the decimal value determined from the X2 table and is the probability of accepting the null hypothesis. A 0.05 probability value equates to a 95% confidence interval.
The Chi-squared test formula is: Example: If we cross two pea plants that are heterozygous yellow pods, we would expect a 3:1 phenotypic ratio. So let's say we actually did the cross and got 280 plants with green pods and 120 plants with yellow pods. Question: Is this a 3:1 phenotypic ratio? This is the value of Chi-squared Test. We have a total of 400 plants and we expect a 300 green:100 yellow phenotypic ratio If the calculated Chi-squared value is less than the critical value listed in the Chi-squared table, then we accept the null hypothesis. This means that there is no significant difference between the observed and the expected values. Our degrees of freedom (df) = 2 outcomes - 1, or df = 1. Now we go the X2 table below and using the df = 1 and probability value of 0.05, our critical value is 3.84. Since our calculated X2 value is 5.33, and is larger than the critical value, we reject the null hypothesis and can say (at 95% confidence) that there is a significant difference between our observed and expected values.
The parent generation is yellowed podded and green podded pea plants. You cross a yellow podded pea plant with a green podded pea plant and you get 100% yellow podded plants in the F1 Generation (Phenotypic ratio 4 : 0, yellow to green). What will be the expected phenotypic ratio when you allow the F1 generation to reproduce?
Fill out the Punnett square.
If we actually did the cross and got 1150 yellow and 350 green. Would this be a consistent with what was expected?
Learning Outcomes Questions
1. Why would you run a Chi-squared test?
To determine if our data is consistent with expected results. | ||
a To determine if our data is consistent with expected results. b To determine if our data exactly matches the expected results. | ||
c To determine the expected results. | ||
d | To compare the phenotypic ratios to the genotypic ratios. |
2. Determine the degrees of Freedom of the phenotypic ratio for this genetic cross.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 5
3. Using the data given, what is the result of your Chi-squared analysis? x2= ___.
a. | 2.22 | |
b | 2.71 | |
c | 4.36 | |
d | 187.78 | |
e | 448.27 |
4. Using the results of your Chi-squared analysis, do we fail to reject or reject the null hypothesis?
a. | Fail to reject the null | |
b. | Reject the null | |
c. | It cannot be determined from the data given |
Meadow voles differ from prairie voles in that they:
a. | are not monogamous. | |
b. | show preference for a single partner if the AVPR1A gene is blocked. | |
c. | release vasopressin but not oxytocin. | |
d. | release oxytocin but not vasopressin. |
5 points
Question 2
Painful events are detected by:
a. | Free nerve endings. | |
b. | Merkel's disks. | |
c. | Meissner's corpuscles. | |
d. | Pacinian corpuscles. |
5 points
Question 3
It has been found that:
a. | Language memory is stored near Broca's area. | |
b. | Identifying pictures of hand tools uses memories stored in the left temporal lobe and hand motor areas. | |
c. | Identifying the color of an object requires memories stored in the temporal lobe. | |
d. | All of the above. |
5 points
Question 4
Sex is considered to be a form of ___ behavior.
a. | chaotic | |
b. | motivated | |
c. | learned | |
d. | innate |
5 points
Question 5
A difference between Einstein's brain and the average brain is that:
a. | It was larger in size. | |
b. | It was lighter in weight. | |
c. | There were more neurons. | |
d. | There was no difference. |
5 points
Question 6
The individual in the opening chapter vignette lost virtually all motor control because the control of our muscles and, hence, our limbs and bodies is heavily influenced by and has to be integrated with our ___.
a. | proprioception sense | |
b. | vestibular sense | |
c. | skin senses | |
d. | visceral sense |
5 points
Question 7
Which cortical area is most important for maintaining information in working memory when a distracting stimulus is introduced?
a. | Temporal lobe. | |
b. | Parietal lobe. | |
c. | Prefrontal cortex. | |
d. | All of the above. |
5 points
Question 8
The anxiolytics that have the highest abuse and addiction potentials are:
a. | Barbiturates. | |
b. | SNRIs. | |
c. | Benzodiazepines. | |
d. | Tricyclics. |
5 points
Question 9
If your grandfather suffered a stroke in his left prefrontal cortex, in what ability would he likely be most impaired?
a. | Working out a complicated math problem in his head. | |
b. | Wondering what the capital city of Nevada is. | |
c. | Playing the piano. | |
d. | Quickly telling you the value of 3x3. |
5 points
Question 10
Major depression:
a. | Can usually be explained by exposure to prolonged stress. | |
b. | Always consists of decreased physical activity. | |
c. | Generally appears after midlife. | |
d. | None of the above. |
5 points
Question 11
According to your text, one of the reasons that some psychologists question the diagnosis of dissociative identity disorder is that:
a. | Symptoms seem to come and go. | |
b. | The symptoms are not consistent across diagnosing psychologists. | |
c. | The number of diagnosed cases increased from 500 to 5000 over a period of six years. | |
d. | They believe it is a popular diagnosis due to movies such as The Three Faces of Eve. |
5 points
Question 12
When the differences in body size are accounted for, the average male's brain is ___ than the average female's brain.
a. | heavier | |
b. | lighter | |
c. | the same size | |
d. | the same ratio |
5 points
Question 13
All of the following make it difficult to determine if there are gender-related differences in behavior and cognition except:
a. | The results show evidence for strong differences, but people do not want to accept them. | |
b. | Different researchers tend measure the same characteristic in different ways. | |
c. | The differences that exist are relatively small. | |
d. | People tend to talk to children dressed as boys or girls in different, subtle ways. |
5 points
Question 14
The leading environmental cause of intellectual disability is:
a. | Maternal alcoholism. | |
b. | Rubella. | |
c. | Prenatal exposure to virus. | |
d. | Early infancy exposure to viruses. |
5 points
Question 15
Antipsychotic medicines have come to be known as ___, which means ___.
a. | psycholeptics; to have antipsychotic effects | |
b. | neuroleptics; to have anti-neurosis effects | |
c. | neuroleptics; to seize control of a neuron | |
d. | psycholeptics; to seize control of a psychosis |
5 points
Question 16
Using classical conditioning to pair a loud boat horn with presenting a blue slide, researchers found that with:
a. | Hippocampus damage, conditioning occurred even though the subjects could not describe what was learned. | |
b. | Amygdala damage, conditioning occurred even though the subjects could not describe what was learned. | |
c. | Hippocampus damage, no conditioning occurred but subjects could describe the procedure. | |
d. | None of the above. |
5 points
Question 17
In the most famous case of Ablatio penis, where a young boy with XY chromosomes had his penis destroyed during a circumcision,
a. | the child (Bruce) was born as a hermaphrodite and the decision was made to rear him as a girl (Brenda). | |
b. | Money counseled the parents that by rearing the child (Bruce) as a girl, âsheâ (Brenda) would accept a female gender identity. | |
c. | the child lost both testicles, which was the source for all of the male-specific hormones in âherâ body. | |
d. | Money showed that the âneutral-at-birthâ position was in fact correct. |
5 points
Question 18
The method of introspection is seldom used in today's research because:
a. | Machines were developed that were more accurate. | |
b. | It was found to be too subjective. | |
c. | It required too much training to produce accurate results. | |
d. | All of the above. |
5 points
Question 19
Both Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease produce damage to:
a. | Declarative memory. | |
b. | Nondeclarative memory. | |
c. | Memory of Lincolnâs birthplace. | |
d. | Memory of what you had for breakfast. |
5 points
Question 20
Lucid dreamers:
a. | Show characteristics of being both awake and asleep. | |
b. | Can control the content of their dreams. | |
c. | Know that they are dreaming. | |
d. | All of the above. |
Meadow voles differ from prairie voles in that they:
1.
__________ are fairly small organelles that provide a safe place within the cell to carry out certain biochemical reactions that generate harmful, highly reactive oxygen species. These chemicals are both generated and broken down in the same location.
Lysosomes |
Endosomes |
Peroxisomes |
Nucleosomes 2. Biologists cannot possibly study all living species. Instead, they try to understand cell behavior by studying a select subset of them. Which of the following characteristics are useful in an organism chosen for use as a model in laboratory studies?
|