PSYC 2450 Chapter Notes - Chapter 14: Libido, Biosocial Theory, Phallic Stage
29 Jun 2018
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Chapter 14 Sex Differences and Similarities, Gender-Role Development, and Sexual Behaviour 1
Chapter 14
Sex Differences and Similarities, Gender-
Role Development, and Sexual Behaviour
Chapter 14 Outline and Summary
Defining Sex and Gender
The term sex is used to refer to biology and encompasses a person’s chromosomes, physical
manifestations, and hormones. In contrast gender refers to a persons social and cultural identity
of “male” and “female.” A zygote who receives an X chromosome from each parent is a genetic
(XX) female and will develop into a baby girl. A zygote that receives a Y from its father is a
genetic (XY) male and will develop into a baby boy. However, the widespread societal
differences between men and women are not accounted for by biology alone. In all probability
gender typing, whereby a child becomes aware of his or her gender and acquires motives, values,
and behaviours considered appropriate for members of that sex, plays a role in the divide
between the sexes as well.
Categorizing Males and Females: Gender-Role Standards
A gender-role standard is a value, motive, or class of behaviours that is considered more
appropriate for members of one sex than the other. Two contrasting types of roles are expressive
roles and instrumental roles. Sensitivity, caring, and cooperation are components of an
expressive role; assertiveness, competitiveness, and independence are components of an
instrumental role. Females have typically been encouraged or expected to take on expressive
roles; males have typically been encouraged or expected to take on instrumental roles.
Some Facts and Fictions about Sex Differences
1. Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes
Girls typically acquire language at an earlier age than boys. Girls also consistently outscore
boys on tests of reading comprehension throughout childhood and adolescence, although the
differences are small. On the other hand, boys outperform girls on tests of visual/spatial
abilities, and once they reach adolescence boys consistently outperform girls on tests of
arithmetic reasoning, but again the differences are small. Also, boys are more aggressive
(both physically and verbally); the differences in levels of aggression are already evident in
early toddlerhood. However, girls are more likely to display covert hostility.
There are also reliable sex differences in activity level (with boys being more active); risk
taking (with girls taking fewer risks); developmental vulnerability (with boys being more
likely to show evidence of a variety of developmental problems); and emotional expressivity
(with girls showing higher levels of emotional expression). Girls tend to be more compliant
to authority figures than boys are, and, when trying to persuade others, girls are more likely
to make polite requests and boys are more likely to use demanding or controlling strategies
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Chapter 14 Sex Differences and Similarities, Gender-Role Development, and Sexual Behaviour 2
of persuasion. However, it is important to remember that these differences represent
differences between groups, and they cannot be used to characterize individuals.
2. Cultural Myths
In other areas, there are no consistent differences between the two sexes. For example, both
sexes are equally interested in social stimuli; neither sex appears to be more “suggestible”;
the two sexes are very similar in their overall self-confidence throughout childhood and
adolescence; neither sex is better at rote learning or concept formation; males and females do
not differ on tests of analytical or logical reasoning; and there are no differences between the
sexes in terms of achievement motivation.
3. Do Cultural Myths Contribute to Sex differences in Ability (and Vocational
Opportunity)?
Women are overrepresented in occupational fields that require verbal ability and
underrepresented in the sciences and in technical fields that require a math or science
background. These observed sex differences may partially result from self-fulfilling
prophecies that originate with differential parental expectations for sons and daughters.
Parents who expect their daughters to have trouble with mathematics may get what they
expect. If parents attribute their daughters’ successes in areas such as math to effort, rather
than to ability, daughters may begin to internalize the belief that they lack the ability to
succeed in math, and may therefore become less confident in their abilities and less
interested in pursuing nonrequired mathematics courses. Similar parental beliefs may
contribute to observed sex differences in English and sports. The same types of self-fulfilling
prophecies may originate in the classroom, fuelled by differential expectations that teachers
have about male and female abilities.
Developmental Trends in Gender Typing
1. Development of the Gender Identity
Recent Canadian research indicates that even at the early age of 18 months, infants show
some awareness of gender labels. Sometime between the ages of 2 and 3 most children are
able to accurately label themselves as either boys or girls. However, it takes somewhat
longer for them to understand that sex cannot be changed; preschool children often think that
boys can become “mommies,” or girls can become “daddies,” if they really want to.
Between the ages of 5 and 7 most children come to understand that sex is an unchanging
attribute.
2. Development of Gender-Role Stereotypes
Once children develop an understanding of gender labels and can correctly label themselves
or other children as boys or girls, they show evidence of gender-role stereotypes. By the age
of 2 years, toddlers begin to show signs of knowledge of gender-role stereotypes, especially
for feminine activities. During the preschool and early elementary-school years gender-role
stereotypes centre on toys, activities, and areas of achievement that are considered
appropriate for the different sexes. In the later elementary-school years children show
evidence of gender stereotypes with respect to psychological dimensions such as personality
traits.
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Chapter 14 Sex Differences and Similarities, Gender-Role Development, and Sexual Behaviour 3
3. Adolescent Thinking about Gender Stereotypes
Elementary-school children are less tolerant of boys who pursue cross-sex interests than of
girls who violate gender stereotypes. During early adolescence children become more
flexible and are more tolerant of individuals who display cross-sex interests. However, by
mid-adolescence both males and females are showing a strong intolerance of cross-sex
mannerisms when they are displayed by either males or females. Strong adolescent
intolerance toward individuals who violate gender stereotypes is part of a larger process
known as gender intensification. Parental influence undoubtedly plays some role in the
emergence of gender intensification, but peers probably have a stronger influence.
4. Development of Gender-Typed Behaviour
Children’s preferences for “gender-appropriate” toys are evident even before they have a
clear gender identity. From 14 to 22 months of age boys usually prefer trucks and cars, while
girls prefer dolls and other soft toys. Toy preferences are so strong at this age that toddlers
will often refuse to play with cross-sex toys, even if no other toys are available.
5. Gender Segregation
Gender segregation also appears early, and it is evident in a variety of cultures. In the early
preschool years children typically select same-sex play companions, and by the late
preschool years they will actively reject play companions of the other sex and even behave
more negatively toward opposite-sex peers. In preadolescence, children who violate gender
segregation rules tend to be less popular than children who show evidence of strong gender
segregation. Gender boundaries and biases against other-sex companions diminish once
adolescents reach puberty.
Theories of Gender Typing and Gender-Role Development
1. Evolutionary Theory
Evolutionary theorists argue that to pass on their genes to future generations it is beneficial
for men to mate with multiple partners, thereby increasing the likelihood of having multiple
children. In contrast, it is costly for a woman to produce multiple children; therefore, women
need to be selective when mating, and chose high-quality males who can provide resources
(food and protection) that will help ensure the child’s survival.
a. Criticisms of the Evolutionary Approach
Although influential, the evolutionary theory has been the source of much debate. Critics of
the evolutionary theory contend that sex differences have not emerged because of
biologically evolved dispositions but rather because cultures assign different roles to men
and women, and girls and boys are socialized from a young age to fit into these roles. This
later view has come to be known as the social roles hypothesis.
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Document Summary
The term sex is used to refer to biology and encompasses a person"s chromosomes, physical manifestations, and hormones. In contrast gender refers to a persons social and cultural identity of male and female. a zygote who receives an x chromosome from each parent is a genetic (xx) female and will develop into a baby girl. A zygote that receives a y from its father is a genetic (xy) male and will develop into a baby boy. However, the widespread societal differences between men and women are not accounted for by biology alone. In all probability gender typing, whereby a child becomes aware of his or her gender and acquires motives, values, and behaviours considered appropriate for members of that sex, plays a role in the divide between the sexes as well. A gender-role standard is a value, motive, or class of behaviours that is considered more appropriate for members of one sex than the other.
