PSYC 2450 Chapter Notes - Chapter 16: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Blue-Collar Worker, Diana Baumrind
29 Jun 2018
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Chapter 16 The Family 1
Chapter 16 Outline and Summary
Understanding the Family
Socialization is the process through which children acquire the beliefs, values, and behaviours
that are deemed significant and appropriate by older members in a society. The socialization
process serves at least three functions: (1) it is a means of regulating children’s behaviour, (2) it
promotes individual growth and development, and (3) it perpetuates the existing social order.
The family plays a pivotal role in the socialization of children, and the family is where the
socialization process first begins.
1. The Family as a Social System
Families are complex social systems in which relationships are reciprocal. Parents influence
their children, but children also influence their parents. The family, as a whole, is affected by
community and cultural influences.
When any two members within a family system interact they influence each other. These
influences are called direct effects. However, the interactions between two family members
are also influenced, to some extent, by the presence of other family members. Influences of
this type are called indirect effects.
Nuclear families consist of a mother, a father, and their children. More complex family
systems emerge in extended family households where, in addition to the parents and their
children, there may also be grandparents, aunts or uncles, nieces or nephews, or other
relations living within the same home. In some cases, the additional social support that is
typically available in extended family households can be beneficial.
2. Families are Developing Systems
Families are also dynamic systems. As each individual within the family structure develops,
the nature of the interactive, reciprocal relationships within the family will change. In many
cases these changes are planned, or can be anticipated, but in other cases the changes are
unplanned or unforeseen.
Families are not isolated social systems. They are embedded within broader subcultural and
cultural systems. In understanding family interactions it is also necessary to consider factors
such as community norms and values, the family’s religious beliefs and affiliations, and the
socioeconomic status of the family.
Social changes also affect the character of family life and the norms for family structures.
Since the 1950s an increasing proportion of adults are postponing marriage or choosing to
remain single. Those adults who do marry are waiting longer to have children and are having
fewer children. The number of mothers who work outside the home has increased
significantly. The divorce rate is increasing, and there are more single-parent families
(approximately 20 percent of Canadian families are headed by a single parent). The high
divorce rate has led to an increase in the number of reconstituted (blended) families. There
has also been an increase in the number of children who live in families that are below the
poverty line.
Parental Socialization during Childhood and Adolescence
1. Two Major Dimensions of Parenting
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Chapter 16 The Family 2
Two key dimensions of parenting are parental acceptance or responsiveness and parental
demandingness or control. The acceptance dimension is a measure of the amount of affection
a parent displays, as well as the amount of support the parent provides. The acceptance
dimension also includes how sensitive parents are to their children’s needs, and how willing
the parents are to provide attention and praise when their children meet their expectations.
The control dimension is a measure of the amount of regulation and control that parents
provide for their children. The control dimension includes how much parents set rules and
expect their children to follow them, and how closely the parents monitor their children’s
activities.
2. Four Patterns of Parenting
The two major dimensions of parenting can combine to produce four parenting patterns:
authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, or uninvolved.
a. Baumrind's Early Research
Baumrind studied the interactions between preschool children and their parents. When she
analyzed the parent's behaviour she found that they exhibited one of three styles of
interaction (none were uninvolved in her sample).
Authoritarian Parenting. Authoritarian parents are restrictive parents (high in control) who
expect strict, unquestioning obedience to rules that they impose (low in responsiveness).
Authoritative Parenting. Authoritative parents also show a high level of control, but they
have a flexible parenting style; they are responsive and encourage their children’s
participation in family decisions.
Permissive Parenting. Permissive parents set few restrictions on their children (low in
control), and they encourage their children to express their feelings and impulses (high in
responsiveness).
Uninvolved Parenting. Uninvolved parents set few restrictions on their children, and they
may ignore their children or be generally nonresponsive to their children.
b. Explaining the Effectiveness of Authoritative Parenting
Children who have authoritative parents seem to show the best developmental outcomes.
They tend to do better academically and socially, and they typically have high self-esteem
and a strong moral character. Children who have authoritarian parents generally have
average academic and social skills; as preschoolers these children may be more moody and
unfriendly, as adolescents they may be more conforming than their peers. Children who have
permissive parents show poor self-control and academic competence, and they tend to be
more impulsive and less independent. Children who have uninvolved parents tend to perform
very poorly in school and are often high in aggression, often displaying conduct disorder; as
adolescents these individuals are more likely to display delinquent or antisocial behaviour.
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Chapter 16 The Family 3
Authoritative parents utilize a sensitive, responsive style in interacting with their children,
and they also use inductive discipline. This is the type of parenting that is associated with
committed compliance, self-reliance, and high self-esteem in children. Authoritative parents
also promote the growth of autonomy in their children by adjusting their level of regulation
and supervision as children develop self-reliance. Permissive and uninvolved parents fail to
set reasonable limits for their children, and without reasonable limits children often fail to
develop adequate self-control. Authoritarian parents, on the other hand, are overly restrictive
and inflexible; under these conditions children may fail to develop a sense of self-reliance
and they may lack self-confidence.
c. Behavioural Control versus Psychological Control
Parents who use behavioural control regulate their children’s actions through firm but
reasonable discipline and by grounding or withdrawing privileges or toys. Parents who exert
psychological control regulate their children’s actions by withholding affection or inducing
guilt or shame. Behavioural control is associated with positive developmental outcomes.
Psychological control is associated with anxiety, depression, and poor choices of peers.
d. Parent Effects or Child Effects?
According to the parent effects model, parents influence the development of the child, such
as when authoritative parenting fosters positive developmental outcomes. However, other
theorists and researchers point out that children, themselves, have a major influence on their
parents. According to the child effects model, authoritative parenting looks adaptive because
easygoing, manageable, and competent children evoke authoritative parenting from their
parents.
3. Social Class and Ethnic Variations in Child Rearing
a. Social Class Differences in Child Rearing
On average, economically disadvantaged and working-class parents are less likely to display
an authoritative style of parenting, when compared to middle-class or upper-class parents.
These overall group differences in parenting styles are evident across a number of racial and
ethnic groups and have also been observed in cross-cultural studies.
There are at least two potential explanations for the observed differences in parenting styles
across different social classes. First, the economic hardships that lower-SES parents are
forced to deal with create psychological stress. This high level of continuing stress can make
adults more anxious and irritable, leading to marital conflict, and therefore may reduce their
capacity to be warm and responsive to the needs of their
children. Consequently, economically disadvantaged parents are more likely to show
evidence of an uninvolved style of parenting. Second, working-class parents are often blue-
collar workers. Blue-collar workers typically work for a supervisor or boss and they must
defer to authority if they are to be successful in their jobs. Consequently, working-class
parents may emphasize respect for authority (through an authoritarian approach to parenting)
because they see this as an important attribute for their children’s future success.
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Document Summary
Socialization is the process through which children acquire the beliefs, values, and behaviours that are deemed significant and appropriate by older members in a society. The socialization process serves at least three functions: (1) it is a means of regulating children"s behaviour, (2) it promotes individual growth and development, and (3) it perpetuates the existing social order. The family plays a pivotal role in the socialization of children, and the family is where the socialization process first begins: the family as a social system. Families are complex social systems in which relationships are reciprocal. Parents influence their children, but children also influence their parents. The family, as a whole, is affected by community and cultural influences. When any two members within a family system interact they influence each other. However, the interactions between two family members are also influenced, to some extent, by the presence of other family members. Influences of this type are called indirect effects.
