PSYC 2450 Chapter Notes - Chapter 2: Operant Conditioning, Lev Vygotsky, Ecological Systems Theory
27 Jun 2018
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Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development 1
Chapter 2
Theories of Human Development
Chapter 2 Outline and Summary
The Nature of Scientific Theories
A theory is a set of concepts and propositions that describe, organize, and explain a set of
observations. Good theories are parsimonious, falsifiable, and heuristic. Parsimony means good
theories are concise and can explain a broad range of phenomena with a few principles or
assumptions. Falsifiability means that good theories can be tested, and the results that are
obtained will either support or refute the theory. A theory has heuristic value if it does not limit
itself to simply explaining existing phenomena, but allows new predictions to be made.
The Psychoanalytic Viewpoint
1. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Freud’s theory focuses on the notion that we are all driven by unconscious needs and
motivations and that our development depends on our early life experiences.
a. Three Components of Personality
Freud’s theory states that the human personality consists of three components that develop
over five stages of psychosexual growth. The three components of personality are the id, the
ego, and the superego. The function of the id is to satisfy inborn biological instincts as soon
as possible. The function of the ego is to find realistic means of gratifying the instincts of the
id. The function of the superego is to enforce moral values and standards, and to ensure that
the ego finds socially acceptable means of meeting the impulses generated by the id.
b. Stages of Psychological Development
These personality components emerge across five stages of psychosexual development.
From birth to age 1, children are in the oral stage of development and derive pleasure from
sucking, chewing, and biting. From ages 1 to 3 children are in the anal stage of development.
During this stage toilet training can be a source of conflict between parents and children.
From ages 3 to 6 children are in the phallic stage of development. Freud suggested that
during this stage children develop a desire for their opposite-sex parent. This emerges as the
Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls. From ages 6 to 11 children are in
the latency stage and psychosexual conflicts are repressed. Once children reach puberty they
enter the genital stage. Adolescents must now learn to express psychosexual urges in socially
acceptable ways.
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Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development 2
2. Contributions and Criticisms of Freud’s Theory
There is not much evidence that an individual’s later personality can be reliably predicted on
the basis of the developmental conflicts that Freud outlined. Freud introduced the concept of
unconscious motivation to mainstream psychology, however, and he deserves credit for
focusing attention on the impact that early experiences can have on later developmental
outcomes. Also, Freud studied a side of development that has often been overlooked by
developmentalists who focus on behaviour and rational thought processes, in that Freud
investigated the emotional side of development.
3. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
a. Comparing Erikson with Freud
Erikson also developed a theory of personality development that portrayed development as a
stage-like progression. However, in Erikson’s theory children are active explorers who adapt
to their environments, not passive beings who are moulded primarily by their parents. Also,
Erikson’s theory places much more emphasis on cultural influences in development, and far
less emphasis on psychosexual urges.
b. Eight Life Crises
Erikson suggests that during our lifetimes we pass through eight stages of psychosocial
development. From birth to age 1 the crisis that is being resolved is basic trust versus
mistrust. During this time the mother or primary caregiver is the key social agent. From ages
1 to 3 the crisis that is being resolved is autonomy versus shame and doubt. During this time
the parents continue to be the key social agents. From ages 3 to 6 the crisis that is being
resolved is initiative versus guilt. During this time the family is the key social agent. From
ages 6 to 12 the crisis that is being resolved is industry versus inferiority. During this time
teachers and peers emerge as significant social agents. From ages 12 to 20 the crisis that is
being resolved is identity versus role confusion. During this time the key social agents are
peers. During the early adult years (20 to 40) the crisis that is being resolved is intimacy
versus isolation. The primary task during this stage is to achieve a sense of love and
companionship with another person. During the middle adult years (40 to 65) the crisis that
is being resolved is generativity versus stagnation. The primary task during this stage is to
become productive in work and raise a family. During the late adult years (65+) the crisis
that is being resolved is ego integrity versus despair. At this point the individual reflects
back over his or her life. A meaningful, productive life produces a sense of integrity; an
unfulfilled life with unrealized goals produces a sense of despair.
4. Contributions and Criticisms of Erikson’s Theory
Erikson’s theory has had a lasting impact in the study of topics such as emotional
development during infancy, the growth of self-concept, the identity issues that face
adolescents, and the influence of friends and playmates on social development. On the other
hand, his theory is vague when it comes to specifying causes for developmental change.
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Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development 3
Consequently, his theory is more of a descriptive overview of human social and emotional
development, rather than an adequate explanation for how and why this development occurs.
5. Psychoanalytic Theory Beyond Freud and Erikson
Neo-Freudians place more emphasis on the social aspects of development and less emphasis
on the role of sexual instincts in development. Karen Horney is a neo-Freudian who has
made contributions in understanding the psychology of women, and Alfred Adler was one of
the first to suggest that siblings are an important influence on development. Harry Stack
Sullivan wrote extensively about how same-sex friendships during middle childhood set the
stage for intimate relationships in later life.
The Learning Viewpoint
1. Watson’s Behaviourism
In the behaviourist perspective, development is viewed as a continuous process of
behavioural change that is shaped by a person’s unique environment. Consequently,
development can differ dramatically from person to person.
2. Skinner’s Operant Learning Theory (Radical Behaviourism)
Skinner’s operant learning theory claims that development depends on external stimuli,
rather than on internal forces such as instincts, or biological maturation. Two important
forces in the environment are reinforcers, which strengthen behaviour and make the
behaviour more probable in the future, and punishers, which suppress behaviour and make it
less likely the behaviour will occur again in the future.
3. Bandura’s Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Bandura agreed that operant conditioning is an important type of learning, but he stressed
that humans are cognitive creatures who think about the relationship between their behaviour
and the consequences that follow their behaviour. This cognitive emphasis is one of the
clearest distinctions between social learning theory and operant learning theory. This
cognitive emphasis is clear in Bandura’s conceptualization of observational learning. With
observational learning individuals learn from watching others. To learn in this way it is
necessary to attend to the behaviour, encode what is observed, and store the information in
memory. Without the execution of these cognitive processes, we would not be able to later
imitate the behaviour we had observed.
3. Social Learning as Reciprocal Determinism
One key component in Bandura’s social learning theory is reciprocal determinism. He
suggests that human development reflects a complex interaction among an active person,
that person’s behaviour, and the environment. In other words, the situations or environments
that an individual experiences will affect that person, but the individual’s behaviour will also
affect and shape the environment. Therefore, human development is a continuous, reciprocal
interaction between individuals and their environments.
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Document Summary
A theory is a set of concepts and propositions that describe, organize, and explain a set of observations. Parsimony means good theories are concise and can explain a broad range of phenomena with a few principles or assumptions. Falsifiability means that good theories can be tested, and the results that are obtained will either support or refute the theory. A theory has heuristic value if it does not limit itself to simply explaining existing phenomena, but allows new predictions to be made. Freud"s theory focuses on the notion that we are all driven by unconscious needs and motivations and that our development depends on our early life experiences: three components of personality. Freud"s theory states that the human personality consists of three components that develop over five stages of psychosexual growth. The three components of personality are the id, the ego, and the superego. The function of the id is to satisfy inborn biological instincts as soon as possible.
