A case-control and a prospective cohort study were conducted to assess the association between exposure X and disease Y. The results of the case-control study suggested that the odds of exposure X were 2.05 times higher among those who had disease Y compared to those who did not (Odds Ratio = 2.05, 95% confidence interval 1.50, 3.13).

However, the results of the prospective cohort study suggested that the risk of outcome Y was only 3% higher and not statistically significant among those who were exposed to X compared to those who were not (Risk Ratio = 1.03, 95% confidence interval 0.97, 1.86). Assuming the results from the prospective cohort study are reflective of the true association, which of the following responses would most likely explain the differing results? (Choose the one best answer)

A) Recall bias within the case-control study

B) Recall bias within the prospective cohort study

C) Berkson's bias (i.e. Diagnostic Bias) within the case-control study

D) Placebo effect within the case-control study

Which of the following statements are true about bias in epidemiological studies? (Choose 1 best answer) Random, non-systematic deviation of the study results from the truth (measurement error) causes bias    Non-random, systematic deviation of the study results from the truth causes bias   Bias can be detected by examining p-values   Bias can be detected by examining confidence intervals

Which of the following statements are true about bias in epidemiological studies? (Choose 1 best answer)  

A) Random, non-systematic deviation of the study results from the truth (measurement error) causes bias  

B) Non-random, systematic deviation of the study results from the truth causes bias  

C) Bias can be detected by examining p-values  

D) Bias can be detected by examining confidence intervals

In a randomized controlled trial, patients with meningitis who were treated with corticosteroids had lower rates of death, hearing loss, and long-term neurological effects. Which of the following is a randomized comparison?

a) Patients who remained for the duration of the trial versus those who dropped out after randomization.

b) Patients who responded to the disease versus those who did not.

c) The sample of patients who took the drug before being randomized and developed the disease.

d) The sample of patients who, at the time of randomization, were severely affected by the disease