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3.  In which scenario is international cooperation on environmental issues more likely?
 
When scientific evidence of an environmental issue arises during a time of international war.

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Raushan Raj
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29 Oct 2020

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Related questions

More than 1.5 million vehicles collide with deer annually, killing hundreds of people and causing over $1 billion in vehicle damage. Some states, such as Michigan, attributed one in seven vehicle accidents to deer. Additional evidence indicates that many deer-related accidents go unreported.

The problem escalates in the fall of each year during deer mating season as more deer are on the move. While deer whistles and other vehicle warning systems appear ineffective in dealing with the problem, clearing brush in the road ditches to make deer more visible appears to help. Deer warning signs also appear to make drivers more vigilant and lower deer-vehicle collisions. What's the best advice? Drivers should be cautious when in deer country and when you see one deer there are likely others around.

Driving an insured vehicle in deer country could create a moral hazard problem. Since the insured knows the company will cover losses, it might make people less vigilant. While it may not be the case with automobile insurance, we do see people take more risks if they know they will not bear the entire burden of the possible negative outcome of their action.

1. What is the purpose of automobile insurance?

2. How does insurance encourage risky behavior?

3. If insurance companies did not cover deer/vehicle collisions or had a very high deductible, what should we observe?

Grade inflation Gone Wild - sTUarTrojsTaCzer

A bout six years ago, I was sitting in the student union of a small liberal arts college when I saw a graph on the cover of the student newspaper that showed the history of grades given at that institution in the past 30 years.

Grades were up. Way up.

I am a scientist by training and I love numbers. So when I looked at that graph, I wondered, How many colleges and universities have
data like this that I can find? The answer is that a lot of schools have data like this hidden somewhere. Back then, I found more than 80 colleges and universities with data on grades, mostly by poking around the Web. Then I created a website (gradeinflation.com) so that others could find this data. I learned that grades started to shoot up nationwide in the 1960s, levelled off in the 1970s, and then started rising again in the 1980s. Private schools had much higher grades than public schools, but virtually everyone was experiencing grade inflation.

What about today?

Grades continue to go up regardless of the quality of education. At a time when many are raising questions about the quality of U.S. higher education, the average GPA at public schools is 3.0, with many flagship state schools having average GPAs higher than 3.2. At a private college, the average is now 3.3. At some schools, it tops 3.5 and even 3.6. A is average at those schools! At elite Brown University, two-thirds of all letter grades given are now A's.

These changes in grading have had a profound influence on college life and learning. When students walk into a classroom knowing that they can go through the motions and get a B+ or better, that's what they tend to do, give minimal effort. Our college classrooms are filled with students who do not prepare for class. Many studies less than 10 hours a week that's less than half the hours they spent studying 40 years ago. Paradoxically, students are spending more and more money on an education that seems to deliver less and less content.
With so few hours filled with learning, boredom sets in and students have to find something to pass the time. Instead of learning, they drink. A recent survey of more than 30,000 first-year students across the country showed that nearly half were spending more hours drinking than they were studying. If we continue along this path, well end up with a generation of poorly educated college graduates who have used their four years principally to develop an addiction to alcohol.

Many say that grade inflation is a complicated issue with no easy fix. But there are solutions. At about the same time that I started to collect data on rising grades, Princeton University began to do something about its grade-inflation problem. Its guidelines have the effect of now limiting A's on average to 35 per cent of students in a class. Those guidelines have worked. Grades are going back down at Princeton and academic rigour is making a comeback. A similar successful effort has taken place at Wellesley College in Massachusetts. And through a concerted effort on the part of faculty and leadership, grades at Reed College in Oregon have stayed essentially constant for 20 years.

Princeton, Wellesley, and Reed provide evidence that the effort to keep grade inflation in check is not impossible. This effort takes two major steps. First, school officials must admit that there is a problem. Then they must implement policies or guidelines that truly restore excellence.

I asked Dean Nancy Malkiel at Princeton why so few schools seem to be following Princeton's lead. Because its hard work, she answered. Because you have to persuade the faculty that its important to do the work.

Making a switch will take hard work, but the effort is worthwhile. The alternative is a student body that barely studies and drinks out of boredom. That's not acceptable. Colleges and universities must roll up their sleeves, bring down inflated grades, and encourage real learning. It's not an impossible task. There are successful examples that can be followed. I am looking forward to the day when we can return to being proud of the education that our nation's colleges and universities provide.

Analyze Stuart Rojstaczer's argument in Grade Inflation Gone Wild, addressing the following questions:
What evidence does Rojstaczer use to indicate that there is a problem?
How would you characterize this evidence (for example, scientific, anecdotal), and to what extent are you persuaded by the evidence he provides to suggest that grade inflation has a profound effect on life and learning?
To what extent does he persuade you that a change in policy is
necessary or that such a change would make a difference?

The country of Sylvania produces and consumes only three goods: Red Bull, pizza, and T-shirts. The quantity produced and price of each good in 2011 and 2012 is given in the following table:

a.Calculate nominal GDP for 2011 and 2012.

b.Using 2011 as the base year, calculate real GDP for 2011 and 2012.

c.Based on your answer from part (b), by what percentage did real GDP grow between 2011 and 2012?. Holding all else equal, will an increase in the efficiency of labor lead to sustained growth? Explain why or why not.

 

When a company engages in international trade, there are several risks involved. Risk arises when there is no guarantee of profits and there is some probability of losses. There is an increase in the export, but there is also an increase in imports, which can become a threat for the domestic producers. When a company expands its base from the domestic market to the international market, it has to face several barriers. 

Some of the risks are mentioned below.

1. Logistical risk:- When a company operates in the international market, then producing and supplying the product on time is important. Sending the product to the customer in other nations require time and funds. To mitigate this risk, a company need more suppliers from different places and order surplus raw material. In this manner, the logistic risk can be reduced. It requires enough capital and hence, only big companies are able to overcome this risk.

2. Political Risk:- There are countries with unstable governments, are more prone to war and terrorism, and local authorities are ineffective. In such a country, it is difficult for the company to survive. It's can lead to a big loss for companies and big problems.

3. Regulatory Risk:- It refers to the difference in the law system from one country to another. These differences are related to filing local documents, obtaining licence, permits, registering a business, etc. Only after all these formalities are fulfilled, can the company do the business efficiently.

There are some ways of mitigating risk:-

1. Risk Acceptance:- It does not affect the company. When avoiding or fighting back to risk is not affordable, then the company should accept it.

2. Risk Avoidance:- In any case, the risk should be avoided. It's an expensive method.

3. Risk Limitations:- The business can adopt a risk limitation strategy. In this, a company can bind itself to a particular type of production, and not go beyond it. It is a combination of risk acceptance and risk avoidance factor.

4. Risk Transfer:- Risk can be transferred to a third party who is willing to accept it, in return for a sum of money. The company has to pay to transfer the risks.

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