PSYC 333 Lecture Notes - Lecture 4: Positive Illusions, Serostatus, Availability Heuristic
7 May 2018
School
Department
Course
Professor
Lecture'4:'The'cognitively'adaptive'self'
(Jan.'18)'
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Plan:'
Introduction*
A.'The'mentally'healthy'person'
B.'Mental'health'and'reality'
C.'Illusions'and'well-being'(Taylor'and'Brown,'1988)'
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Part*1:*Evidence*for*illusions*
I.'Self-evaluations'
II.'Personal'control'
III.'Risk'assessment''
'
Part*2:*Are*these*illusions*adaptive?*
I.'Happiness'
'Study:'Manipulate'the'self-serving'attribution'(McFarland'&'Ross,'1982)'
II.'Caring'for'others'
III.'Creative'and'productive'work'
' A.'Study'1:'Adjustment'to'University'(Aspinwall'&'Taylor,'1992)'
' B.'Study'2:'Illusions'and'men'at'risk'for'AIDS'(Taylor'et'al'1992)'
' C.'Study'3:'Expectations'and'symptom'onset'(Reed'et'al,'1999)'
' D.'Study'4:'Expectations'and'AIDS'course'(Reed'et'al,'1994)'
' E.'Optimism'bias-revisited'(Sharot'et'al'2012)'
'F.'L-DOPA'and'optimism'bias'(Sharot'et'al'2012)'
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'
Introduction:*
A.'The'mentally'healthy'person'
-stability'
-rationality'
-high'self-esteem'
-adaptive'
-copes'well'with'stress'and'adversity'
-follows'social'norms'
-realistic'about'our'selves'
-close'contact'with'reality'
'
'
B.'Mental'health'and'reality'
“The% perception% of% reality% is% called% mentally% healthy% when% what% the% individual% perceives%
corresponds%to%what%is%actually%there.”'(Johoda,'1958)'
'
In' fact,' people' actually' make' a' number' of' systematic* errors* when* gathering* and*
processing*information*and*making*judgments:*heuristics'and'biases'
*
1.' heuristics* :'simple* inefficient* rules* that* people* use* to* make* judgment* and*
decisions.*'
Example:' availability* heuristic.' Plain' crashes' are' not' that' frequent,' but' when' that'
happened' it' is' very' visible' in' the' press.' People' esteem' the' probability' of' an' event'
depended'on'how'available'it'is'in'your'memory.''
*
2.*biases:'
Example:' the* fundamental'attribution* error:' attributing' a' behaviour' to' a' person'
without'taking'any'thing'in'context'
=>'You'see'a'child'throwing'an'object,'so'you'think'he'is'aggressive.'But'maybe'he'had'a'
long'day'at'school'and'is'just'tired.'We'make'conclusion'too'quickly'without'taking'in'
consideration'the'context.'
Errors'are'not'just'about'external'reality.'
'
'
C.'Illusions'and'well-being'(Taylor'and'Brown,'1988)'
Most'people'have'illusions'about'the'self:'
1.*Positively*biased*self*evaluations*
2.*Illusions*of*control*
3.*Risk*assessment'(unrealistic'and'overly'optimistic)'
=>'Are'most'people'mentally'unwell,'or'are'such'illusions'adaptive?'
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Part*1:*Evidence*for*illusions*
We'overestimate'our'self'in'3'situations:''
-self'evaluations,''
-personal'control,'
-risk'assessment.''
'
'
I.'Self'evaluations'
When' people' are' asked' to' present' themselves' they' overwhelmingly* use* positive*
traits.*'
Positive'traits'are'overwhelming'more'descriptive'of'the'self'than'negative'traits.''
Positive*information* about* the* self*and*successes* are* processed* more*efficiently*
and*recalled*better*than*negative*self*information*and*failures.**
*
When'we'do'remember'our'failure,'we'tend'to'have'the'self*serving*bias'when'making'
causal'attributions'(e.g.,'ace/fail'exam).''
Example:'When'I'pass'an'exam,'it'is'because'of'me'and'my'work'but'when'I'fail'an'exam'
it'is'because'of'the'teacher'or'because'I'was'sick'this'day.''
'
We*think*our*talents*are*unique,*but*our*weaknesses*are*common.**
*
=>'But'are'such'favourable'evaluations'illusions?''
Illusions'='distortions'of'reality''
There'are'indirect'evidences'that'it'is'an'illusion.''
Is'it'possible'to'find'direct'evidence?'
'
1.*Better-than-average-effect:''
We'sample'100'people'and'ask'them'to'rate'how'attractive'/'funny'/'intelligent'they'are.''
50'people'should'be'above'average'and'50'below'average.''
But'much'more'people'say'they'are'above'average'than'below'average.''
But'everybody'cannot'be'above'average.''
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2.*Self*ratings*>>>>*observer*rations*(e.g.,*social*competence)**
People'overestimate'their'ability'compared'to'the'third-party'observer.***
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II.'Personal'control'
The'idea'that'we'have'control'over'our'lives'is'central'to'most'theories'of'self-esteem'
and'well-being'(learned'helplessness).''
Depression* can* be* caused* by* a* sense* that* you* have* no* control* over* what* is*
happening*to*you.**
But,' control' beliefs' tend' to' be' greater' than' what’s' justified' (i.e.,' illusory):' gambling,'
lottery'tickets…'
'
Experience:'the'dices''
Method:'People'are'ask'to'evaluate'the'chances'they'have'to'win'if'they'throw'the'dices,'
or'if'somebody'else'throws'the'dices'for'them.'
Result:' People' think' that' they' have' more' chances' to' win' if' they' throw' the' dices'
themselves.''
'
Experience'2:'lottery'tickets'
Method:' People' are' ask' to' evaluate' the' chances' they' have' to' win' if' they' chose' the'
number'of'the'lottery'tickets,'or'if'somebody'else'does'it'for'them.'
Result:'People'think'they'have'more'chance'to'win'if'it'is'their'ticket'and'not'anyone’s'
else'ticket.''
'
=>' People* believe* they* have* control* is* situations* governed* by* chance'(e.g.,' dice'
throwing).''
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“Depressive*realism”'='people'who'are'more'depressed'are'more'realistic.''
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III.'Risk'assessment'
Most'people'are*optimistic*about*the*future.*'
Is'such'optimism'(un)realistic?'
Method:'People'are'asked'to'answer'theses'questions''
-How'likely'it'that'…..'will'happen'to'you?'
-How'likely'it'that'…..'will'happen'to'a'peer'(same'age,'gender,'education'level,'ect.)?'
Result:'People'think'negative'things'are'less'likely'to'happened'to'them.''
Even* when* people* are* given* base-rate* probabilities,* they* don’t* update* their*
predictions*!*
Estimates'may'be'accurate'for'specific'individuals,'but'can’t'be'true'of'everyone.'
But'again,'depressive'realism.'
Document Summary
Lecture 4: the cognitively adaptive self (jan. 18) Introduction: the mentally healthy person, mental health and reality, illusions and well-being (taylor and brown, 1988) Part 2: are these illusions adaptive: happiness. Close contact with reality: mental health and reality. The perception of reality is called mentally healthy when what the individual perceives corresponds to what is actually there. (johoda, 1958) In fact, people actually make a number of systematic errors when gathering and processing information and making judgments: heuristics and biases: heuristics : simple inefficient rules that people use to make judgment and decisions. Plain crashes are not that frequent, but when that happened it is very visible in the press. People esteem the probability of an event depended on how available it is in your memory: biases: Example: the fundamental attribution error: attributing a behaviour to a person without taking any thing in context. => you see a child throwing an object, so you think he is aggressive.
