ANTH106 Lecture Notes - Lecture 9: Ministerial Order, Methamphetamine, Cough Medicine
2 Jun 2018
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Week 9 Lecture: Political Economy of Opiates
Botanical and pharmacological characteristics of opiates –
• Opium is the sap of a particular kind of poppy (Papaver somniferum)
• Morphine is one of 23 alkaloids found in an opium – the morphine content of
opium is about 10%
• Heroin is a synthesis of morphine and the industrial acid, acetic ahydride
Opium: areas of cultivation –
• Areas of illicit cultivation:
o Golden Triangle (N.E. Burma, northern Thailand and Laos)
o Golden Crescent (parts of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran)
• Opium is cultivated legally for pharmaceuticals in 19 countries including
India, China, Japan, Turkey, France, UK and Australia (Tasmania – 1400
farmers growing; harvested mechanically by straw methods)
Regions of opium cultivation –
• In the Americas, Mexico is not far behind the Golden Triangle (about 11% of
world opium, some in Columbia as well)
The Trocki Thesis:
• The development of capitalism in Europe was linked to the expansion of drugs
and drug economies
• Drugs (alcohol, tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar) provided the first mass consumer
markets due to their addictive qualities; produced by slaves on large
plantations
• The problem of the tea trade with China: drain on European silver supplies –
all tea in Europe came from China; tea had to purchased with silver
• Opium as the solution to the trade deficit with China
• In 1773, the East India Company was granted a monopoly over production and
sale of opium, following British colonization
• Opium became a fully capitalist commodity (in British India) – mass produced
and with a mass consumer market
o A) Opium cultivated under strict control, in Bengal by more than a
million farmers (Benares and Bihar states in north-eastern India)
o B) EIC created a well organised system of packaging, storage, pricing
and quality control
o C) The mass market was China and SE Asia
Opium addiction and mass consumer markets –
• 15 million Chinese opium addicts by 1830s
• Chinese emperor attempted to ban opium imports from India
• Opium Wars fought to maintain lucrative trade
• Legalisation of opium imports (1860) encouraged local cultivation in S.W.
China by hill tribes
• Opium production reached 30,000-40,000 tons by 1906
• 40 million opium addicts in China by 1890
• Migration of Chinese to SE Asia due to famines in south China
find more resources at oneclass.com
find more resources at oneclass.com
• Colonial governments established opium dens for Chinese addicts. Opium
monopolies sold opium imported from India to licensed Chinese merchants
• By 1930: 6000 government opium dens in SE Asia supplying about 500,000
registered addicts
• Chinese opium merchants formed interconnected syndicates which allowed
rapid accumulation of capital and investment in commodity production (e.g.
spices, mining) and first Asian banks
Opium cultivation in the Golden Triangle –
• Opium first cultivated in GT region by hill tribes (e.g. Hmong, Yao) who fled
from China in response to Chinese military campaigns
• Local opium cultivation at first discouraged by Opium Monopolies as threat to
profits (much cheaper than that supplied by monopolies)
• But local cultivation encouraged during WW2 due to problem of obtaining
supplies from India and Middle East
Post-war surge in opium cultivation in Golden Triangle
• Early 1970s = 1000 tons (70% of global illicit production). Mid 1990s = 2700
tons (50% of global illicit production)
• Major cause: ethnic insurgency and warlordism in N.E. Burma in response to
uncompromising centralist policies of Burma’s military government from
early 1960s
• By 1990s, there were 16 armed ethnic groups (40 armies) in rebellion against
central government. Most armies trafficked in opiates to finance rebellions
Causes of rapid increase in opium production in Afghanistan –
• Opiate production in Afghanistan has exceeded that of GT since mid 1990s,
largely due to insurgency, warlordism and a weak central government
• Islamic guerrilla groups (mujaheddin) financed war against Soviet Union by
collecting taxes in opium
• 1989-1996: Rival mujaheddin factions financed fighting in civil war with
profits from opiates
• 1996-2000: Taliban expanded opium production by a 20% tax on drug
shipments by traffickers
• Taliban prohibited opium cultivation in July 2000, but after 9/11 and defeat in
2001, it has renewed dependence on opium to fund guerilla war against central
govt and win support from local farmers
• Pro-government warlords also invest heavily in opium cultivation and
trafficking
• This led to a surge in opium production to 7,400 tons in 2007 (93% of world’s
illicit supply). In 2015, production was 3,300 tons (70% of global illicit
cultivation), 38% reduction from previous year due to low yields
Failure of ‘War on Drugs’ supply eradication:
• ‘Balloon effect’ → eradication success in one area leads to expansion in
another area
• Opium eradicated in Thailand in mid 1980s to govt. increased political control
over highland opium-growing areas and successful alternative development
programs – however, opium cultivation expanded in Laos and Burma
find more resources at oneclass.com
find more resources at oneclass.com
Document Summary
Opium: areas of cultivation : areas of illicit cultivation, golden triangle (n. e. Burma, northern thailand and laos: golden crescent (parts of pakistan, afghanistan and iran, opium is cultivated legally for pharmaceuticals in 19 countries including. India, china, japan, turkey, france, uk and australia (tasmania 1400 farmers growing; harvested mechanically by straw methods) In the americas, mexico is not far behind the golden triangle (about 11% of world opium, some in columbia as well) Post-war surge in opium cultivation in golden triangle: early 1970s = 1000 tons (70% of global illicit production). Mid 1990s = 2700 tons (50% of global illicit production: major cause: ethnic insurgency and warlordism in n. e. Burma in response to uncompromising centralist policies of burma"s military government from early 1960s: by 1990s, there were 16 armed ethnic groups (40 armies) in rebellion against central government. Most armies trafficked in opiates to finance rebellions.
