ES295 Final: Exam-Review-ES295
11 Jun 2018
School
Department
Course
Professor
Module One: As noted I won’t be expecting you to memorize all the terminology, I won’t ask for
definitions, etc. Of course I will be more impressed if you can apply the proper terminology when
answering questions. You do need to know the basics such as mass, adventure, nature-based
tourism; hard/soft tourists; socio-cultural differences such as gender, age etc. Also review
the different viewpoints, paradigms; sustainability etc. Also you should have an
understanding of the changes in the philosophy and directions in tourism and ecotourism.
Chapters 1 and 2 (see the lesson notes for specific pages)
Mass tourism: commonly used term for large-scale tourism, implying participation by the mass or bulk of
a society's population. The term is usually used in reference to the post-world war II era of exponential
tourism growth.
Adventure tourism: tourism that incorporates an element of risk, higher levels of physical exertion and a
need for specialized skills to enable successful participation. The concept is subjective in that perceptions
of risk and thresholds of physical exertion vary from person to person.
Nature-based tourism: any type of tourism that relies mainly on attractions directly related to the natural
environment. Ecotourism and 3S tourism are both types of nature-based tourism.
Hard (eco)tourists: an ecotourist market segment that is strongly biocentric and characterized as an ideal
type by the desire for deep and meaningful interaction with natural settings, minimal services, orientation
toward enhancement sustainability, FIT travel, physically and mentally challenging experiences and
specialized travel. Hard ecotourists constitute only a very small portion of the ecotourist market.
Soft (eco)Tourists: an ecotourist market segment that is more anthropocentric in perspective, and prefers
short-term and diversionary contact with the natural environment. This preferably occurs in a well-serviced
and mediated setting, such as the sacrificial space in a high-order protected area. Soft-ecotourists are often
the same as mass tourists and constitute the overwhelming majority of the ecotourist market.
Sociocultural differences:
The socio-cultural impacts on the peoples and their social system can be as great or greater than those on
the environment. Therefore, we also have to assess the costs and benefits to the local communities when
proposing an activity. Often under the umbrella of environmental assessment, the impacts on the socio-
cultural system are also analyzed. In many assessments there is an environmental and socio-cultural
assessment that constitutes a holistic examination of potential impacts.
Market segmentation considers the characteristics of those participating in the market. It is the process in
which the market is divided into distinctive sub-components or market segments. Members of a market
segment will share common traits. The criteria that can be used in describing subgroups include motivation
and behavior, geographic location and demographics.
Socio-demographic criteria
This is also important information when developing marketing strategies as well as educating target groups.
Typical socio-demographic criteria include gender, age, education and income.
Different viewpoints: Weaver identifies two general viewpoints - 'biocentric' and 'anthropocentric'.
Biocentric: an approach that focuses on the welfare of the natural environment. Some argue that a
biocentric approach is also ultimately anthropocentric to the extent that the survival of humans depends on
the maintenance of a viable natural environment.
Anthropocentric:!an approach that focuses on the welfare of humans
Different paradigms:
Paradigm: a model. In its broadest sense, a paradigm is a collective world view or model of how the
universe operates. In Kuhn’s (1970) terminology, a paradigm is the entire collection of beliefs, values,
techniques and so on shared by the members of a given community. (31)
Paradigm shift: the process whereby one paradigm is gradually supplanted by another paradigm that is
better able to explain and contend with contradictions and anomalies that emerge in the older paradigm.
For example, it appears that the dominant Western environmental paradigm is being replaced by a green
paradigm, which advocates a more sustainable way of existing within the natural environment. New
paradigms usually incorporate elements of the older paradigm through a process of synthesis. (31)
Over the past 40-50 years we have seen the growth of the environmental movement and during this time it
has expanded from a fringe movement to a mainstream concern of many citizens. Most have heard the
terms water pollution, ozone depletion, global warming and have made an attempt to help reduce these
threats. This includes behaviourial changes such as car-pooling and recycling. This shift in thinking and
values can be described as a paradigm shift towards a green attitude. This shift has had several important
implications to the field of ecotourism. These include:
-re-establishing the link between humans and nature and
-recognizing the economic and indirectly ecological and social benefits of ecotourism.
Western Environmental Paradigm: the dominant scientific paradigm with respect to its anthropocentric
perception of the relationship between humans and the natural environment. This is based on human/
environment separation, human dominance over the environment and the objectification of the natural
environment as comprising useful “resources”. (32)
Green paradigm: the biocentric environmentalist paradigm that is emerging as a challenge to the dominant
Western environmental paradigm. This juxtaposition may indicate a paradigm shift. (35)
The Environmental Movement: The increasingly organized and popular trend favouring the protection
and enhancement of the natural environment. The emergence and growth of the environmental movement
(or environmentalism) parallels and reflects the emergence and growth of the green paradigm.
Ex. Bushwalker movement: an early manifestation of the environmental movement in austrailia that
involved members of largely urban-based walking clubs who lobbied for the creation and expansion of
high-order protected areas near large cities. The bushwalkers seem to qualify as ecotourists in all but name.
Traditionalists or Non-environmentalists
Cultural Creatives or True environmentalists
Modernists or Veneer environmentalists
Different sustainability:
Weak and Strong:
-closely linked to the knowledge-based platform
-accomodates both sustaining the environment (alternative tourism) and continued development (mass
tourism)
Environmental and Sociocultural:
-must respect the integrity of host communities
-improve the welfare of the local people
-locally oriented
Status quo and enhancement:
-whether the objective is to maintain the status quo, or to improve the existing situation
-environment must experience a net benefit
Biomes: The term Biome is applied to global regions that exhibit similar patterns in vegetation and wildlife
that have evolved in relation to the physical environment.
Changes in the directions in tourism and ecotourism:
Weaver also introduces the concept of dynamic sustainability or ecotourism that undergoes change.
Steady State Sustainability or Passive Ecotourism
Enhancement Sustainability or Active Ecotourism
Module Two: Here the focus is on nature-based tourism, wildlife watching and parks and
protected areas. Our target biome was grasslands and savannas with special focus on the
African Savanna. You need to have a good background in the linkages between parks/
protected areas and ecotourism; global goals/patterns of protected areas; impacts of
ecotourism on parks; different types of protected areas. You should also have an
understanding of the importance of wildlife to ecotourism as well as the impacts on
wildlife. Chapters 3, 7 and 10 - Lessons 3, 4
Nature-based tourism:
-Any type of tourism that relies mainly on attractions directly related to the natural environment.
-Examples: Ecotourism and 3S tourism are both types of nature-based tourism
Wildlife watching:
-One of the most active areas of ecotourism
-Most evident in the area of bird watching
-Large growth in the last two decades
-Preferred hobbies of retirees and baby boomers (more recently)
-Targeting hard-core birders targeting specific species and soft ecotourists interested in just
seeing a variety of animals
-Example: Point Pelee National Park
-Extensive festival of birds
-Important to the local community
-Provides capital to be used in the management of the park and wildlife
-The chance to see exotic, large land or marine mammals or megafauna
-Megafauna can be used to describe the large mammals most commonly found in Africa
-Megafauna include the species that are recognizable to most of the public such as the
elephant, tiger, and polar bear
Linkages between parks/protected areas and ecotourism:
-Importance of public protected areas as ecotourism venues because several factors:
-Natural environments
•Most protected areas are more or less oriented towards the protection of relatively undisturbed
natural environments and biodiversity
•Provide a suitable physical setting for ecotourism in the light of the natural-based criterion
•Protected area status granted to an area on the basis of exceptional natural qualities or strategic
location - because of their charismatic megaflora + fauna
•Examples: Sichuan’s Giant Panda sanctuaries, Galapagos National Park, California’s Redwood
National Park, and Grand Canyon National Park
-High public profile
•Parks that attained high enough profile to be considered a primary or iconic tourist attraction in their
country or region
•Preferred or ‘must see’ destinations for large numbers of visitors
•Designations of an area as a internationally recognized World Heritage Site also confers status and
market visibility on selected protected areas
•Conferral of status - increases visitation levels
-Structural suitability to ecotourism
•Recreational activities that focus on the appreciation of the natural environment
•World heritage designation requires that adequate site interpretation be made available facilitating
the education + learning criterion of ecotourism
•Preservation is primary purpose, but ‘natural-based recreational use is encouraged, where possible
•A concomitant advantage for ecotourism is the exclusion of most hunting + fishing as well as
motorized off-road recreational vehicles
-Investment in infrastructure and services
•Examples: walking trails, parking, toilet facilities, campgrounds, and equipment rental sites.
•Interpretation centres and restaurants may also be provided
•Many of these may provide little to no cost - encouraging high levels of visitation
-Convergence between protected and natural landscapes
•The growth and increase of size of protected areas has been far exceeded by the pace at which
remaining natural environments are being destroyed and degraded
Document Summary
Module one: as noted i won"t be expecting you to memorize all the terminology, i won"t ask for de nitions, etc. Of course i will be more impressed if you can apply the proper terminology when answering questions. You do need to know the basics such as mass, adventure, nature-based tourism; hard/soft tourists; socio-cultural differences such as gender, age etc. Also review the different viewpoints, paradigms; sustainability etc. Also you should have an understanding of the changes in the philosophy and directions in tourism and ecotourism. Chapters 1 and 2 (see the lesson notes for speci c pages) Mass tourism: commonly used term for large-scale tourism, implying participation by the mass or bulk of a society"s population. The term is usually used in reference to the post-world war ii era of exponential tourism growth. Adventure tourism: tourism that incorporates an element of risk, higher levels of physical exertion and a need for specialized skills to enable successful participation.
